History of political thought

• 1. Ancient Foundations And Non-Western Traditions

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  Around 770 BCE, China entered a period of peace and prosperity that allowed the Hundred Schools of Thought to rise. Confucius became the most influential figure among these schools, grounding his thinking in traditional Chinese values like loyalty, duty, and respect. He believed society could improve through reciprocal treatment led by moral examples set by rulers. For this system to work, society had to be ordered hierarchically, modeled after the patriarchal family and headed by an absolute sovereign. Later thinkers like Mozi agreed with meritocracy but opposed the family model of governance as nepotistic. Taoism advocated proto-anarchism while Legalism argued authoritarian discipline was crucial for state governance. The Qin dynasty made Legalism dominant before State Confucianism replaced it during the Han dynasty. This philosophy remained China's political standard until the nation adopted communism in the 20th century.

  In ancient India, political philosophy drew clear distinctions between nation and state, and religion and state. Hindu state constitutions evolved over time based on political treatises and social institutions. The principal governing body called Mantranga consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army, and Chief Priest of the King. Chanakya served as a 4th-century BC Indian political philosopher who wrote the Arthashastra. This text provided accounts of politics for wise rulers, foreign affairs policies, spy states, surveillance systems, and economic stability measures. Chanakya quoted authorities including Bruhaspati, Ushanas, Prachetasa Manu, Parasara, and Ambi. He described himself as a descendant of a lineage of political philosophers with his father Chanaka as his immediate predecessor. Another influential treatise was the Sukra Neeti, while the Manusmriti or Laws of Manu offered examples of legal codes. Chanakya believed virtue in leaders and merit of advisers were essential. He also argued that ends justify means, suggesting rulers should substitute their virtues for defeated enemies' vices after using available means to defeat them.

• 2. Medieval Synthesis And Religious Authority

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  Medieval European political philosophy heavily reflected Christian thinking throughout centuries of development. Scholastics combined Aristotle's philosophy with St. Augustine's Christianity to emphasize harmony between reason and revelation. Aquinas became perhaps the most influential medieval political philosopher by reintroducing Aristotle's works transmitted through Muslim Spain alongside Averroes commentaries. His Summa Theologica developed ideas about tyrants being no true kings who could be overthrown. Nicole Oresme countered this view in his Livre de Politiques by categorically denying rights to overthrow unjust rulers. Magna Carta explicitly proposed the right to revolt against rulers for justice's sake, serving as a cornerstone of Anglo-American political liberty.

  Augustine of Hippo created early Christian philosophy heavily influenced by Plato. A key change brought by Christian thought moderated Stoicism and Roman theory of justice while emphasizing state mercy as moral example. Augustine preached individuals belonged either to City of God or Earthly City rather than their physical city. His work City of God attacked the thesis held by many Christian Romans that Christian views could be realized on Earth. Islamic political philosophy emerged from Qur'an and Sunnah making it essentially theocratic. Early Islamic philosophy emphasized links between science and religion through ijtihad processes finding truth. Rationalist Mutazilite philosophers challenged traditionalists by holding reason above revelation. By late ancient period, traditionalist Asharite views triumphed requiring reason subordinate to Quran and Sunna. Ibn Khaldun stood out as 14th-century Arab scholar considered one of greatest political theorists. Ernest Gellner called Ibn Khaldun's definition of government preventing injustice other than what it commits itself best in history of political theory.

• 3. Renaissance Secularism And The Social Contract

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  Niccolò Machiavelli wrote The Prince around 1513 though it remained unpublished until posthumously released in 1532 after his death. This work along with Discourses did much to influence modern Western political thought despite being written for Medici family to perhaps free him from exile. Machiavelli actually supported Republic of Florence over Medici principate while presenting novel controversial views where acquisition and maintenance of absolute royal power determined by prince's ability to forego moral virtues. His Discourses on Livy focused mainly on republican statecraft recommending well-ordered republics noting free republics had better power structures than principalities. He excused actions like Romulus murdering brother co-ruler to found Rome with laws fit for free society. Thomas Hobbes expanded social contract theories at start of 17th century during English Renaissance.

  John Locke exemplified new age political theory through Two Treatises of Government proposing state-of-nature theory complementing how political development occurs founded through contractual obligation. Locke refuted Sir Robert Filmer's paternally founded political theory favoring natural system based on nature within particular given systems. Divine right of kings became passing fancy exposed to ridicule John Locke applied against it unlike Machiavelli and Hobbes but like Aquinas accepting Aristotle dictum man seeks happiness in social harmony as social animal. Locke believed mind enters world tabula rasa making knowledge neither innate revealed nor authority-based subject to uncertainty tempered reason tolerance moderation. Absolute rulers proposed by Hobbes unnecessary since natural law based reason seeking peace survival for man.

• 4. Enlightenment Rationality And Revolutionary Ideals

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  François Marie Arouet de Voltaire stood out as most outspoken critic of church in France during Enlightenment period. In letter dated the 5th of January 1767 to Frederick II King of Prussia he wrote Christianity was assuredly most ridiculous absurd bloody religion ever infected world calling for extirpating infamous superstition among honest people thinking wishing think. After Voltaire religion never same again in France. New theories emerged about human definition reality perception way perceived along discovery other societies Americas changing needs political societies especially wake English Civil War American Revolution French Revolution Haitian Revolution. These theories led questions insights by thinkers Thomas Hobbes John Locke Benjamin Constant Jean-Jacques Rousseau driven two basic questions: what right need people form states best form state could be.

  Jean-Jacques Rousseau analyzed social contract expression general will controversially arguing favor absolute democracy where people large act sovereign. His Social Contract published 1762 outlined basis legitimate political order framework classical republicanism becoming one most influential works Western tradition. Treatise began dramatic opening lines stating Man born free everywhere chains those thinking themselves masters others greater slaves than they. Rousseau claimed state nature primitive condition without law morality humans left benefits necessity cooperation. As society developed division labor private property required human race adopt institutions law degenerate phase man prone frequent competition fellow men increasingly dependent them threatening survival freedom.

• 5. Industrialization And Socialist Movements

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  Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels became first theorists Socialism Communism following Industrial Revolution dramatically changed societies. Their ideas further developed Vladimir Lenin leading ideology Leninism under Joseph Stalin developing Marxism-Leninism put practice Soviet Union later Eastern Bloc. During Cold War resulting Maoism Ho Chi Minh Thought Hoxhaism Titoism ideologies. Industrialisation enabled rise colonialism accompanied Imperialism ideology countered anti-imperialist ideologies Gandhism Nasserism. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon commonly considered father modern anarchism specifically mutualism while Peter Kropotkin influenced theorist anarcho-communism. Mikhail Bakunin's specific version called collectivist anarchism Max Stirner main representative anarchist current known individualist anarchism founder ethical egoism endorsing anarchy.

  Henry David Thoreau wrote Civil Disobedience influencing later activists Leo Tolstoy Mahatma Gandhi Martin Luther King Jr Hard-lining on citizen right seek justice over state's outspoken advocate apologist John Brown following raid Harper's Ferry purpose abolitionist efforts writing Plea Captain John Brown Last Days John Brown. Karl Marx critique capitalism alongside liberalism fascism defining ideological movements twentieth century. Urbanization capitalism greatly reshaped society mid-19th century Marxism developed socialism gained increasing popular support mostly urban working class. Russian Revolution 1917 brought communism world stage political theory Leninism smaller level Luxemburgism Antonio Gramsci instigated concept hegemony arguing state ruling class use culture ideology gain consent classes rule over.

• 6. Twentieth Century Liberalism And Critical Theory

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  John Rawls published A Theory of Justice in 1971 considered milestone Anglo-American academic political philosophy. Rawls used thought experiment original position where representative parties choose principles justice basic structure society behind veil ignorance offering criticism utilitarian approaches questions political justice. Robert Nozick won National Book Award with 1974 book Anarchy State Utopia criticizing social liberalism Rawls libertarian perspective gaining much academic respectability. Michel Foucault critiqued modern conception power based prison complex prohibitive institutions designating sexuality madness knowledge roots infrastructure demonstrating subjection power formation subjects linguistic forum revolution cannot just thought reversal power between classes.

  Colonialism racism important issues arose during 1950s and 1960s leading feminist postcolonial multicultural thought significant challenges social contract by philosophers Charles W Mills The Racial Contract Carole Pateman Sexual Contract excluding persons colour women respectively. Frankfurt School thinkers Herbert Marcuse Theodor W Adorno Max Horkheimer Jürgen Habermas combined Marxian Freudian perspectives called father New Left Marcuse introduced repressive desublimation concept social control operate not only direct manipulation desire. Habermas pioneered public sphere communicative action deliberative democracy concepts. Situationists influenced Hegel Guy Debord moved Marxist analysis commodity fetishism realm consumption looking relation consumerism dominant ideology formation.