Han dynasty
In 202 BC, Liu Bang assumed the title of Emperor at the urging of his followers and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu. He defeated Xiang Yu at the Battle of Gaixia in modern-day Anhui after a long war to determine hegemony over China. The resulting Han dynasty was named after the Hanzhong fief where Liu Bang had been appointed prince by the hegemon Xiang Yu following the collapse of the Qin dynasty. Chang'an became the new capital of the reunified empire under Han. At the beginning of the Western Han, thirteen centrally controlled commanderies existed in the western third of the empire while the eastern two-thirds were divided into ten semi-autonomous kingdoms. To placate prominent commanders from the war with Chu, Emperor Gaozu enfeoffed some of them as kings. By 196 BC, the Han court had replaced all of these kings with royal Liu family members except for Changsha. The loyalty of non-relatives to the emperor was questioned leading to several insurrections by Han kings. The largest rebellion occurred in 154 BC during the Rebellion of the Seven States. Following this uprising, the imperial court began enacting reforms that limited the power of these kingdoms in 145 BC. Kings were no longer able to appoint their own staff; this duty was assumed by the imperial court. Kings became nominal heads of their fiefs and collected a portion of tax revenues as their personal incomes.
The nomadic Xiongnu chieftain Modu Chanyu conquered various tribes inhabiting the eastern portion of the Eurasian Steppe before his death. He controlled Inner Asian regions including Manchuria, Mongolia, and the Tarim Basin subjugating over twenty states east of Samarkand. In 200 BC, the Xiongnu invaded what is now Shanxi where they defeated Han forces at Baideng. After negotiations, the heqin agreement in 198 BC nominally held leaders of the Xiongnu and Han as equal partners in a royal marriage alliance. The Han were forced to send large amounts of tribute items such as silk clothes food and wine to the Xiongnu. Emperor Wu accepted a majority consensus among ministers to retain the heqin agreement despite continuing raids until 133 BC when a plot involving assassination of the Chanyu failed. Emperor Wu launched massive military invasions into Xiongnu territory culminating in 119 BC at the Battle of Mobei. Han commanders Huo Qubing and Wei Qing forced the Xiongnu court to flee north of the Gobi Desert reaching as far north as Lake Baikal. The Xiongnu leader Huhanye submitted to the Han as a tributary vassal in 51 BC while Zhizhi Chanyu was killed by Han forces under Chen Tang and Gan Yanshou at the Battle of Zhizhi in modern Taraz Kazakhstan. In 121 BC Han forces expelled the Xiongnu from vast territory spanning Hexi Corridor to Lop Nur establishing four new frontier commanderies: Jiuquan Zhangyi Dunhuang and Wuwei. Diplomat Zhang Qian traveled from 139 to 125 BC establishing Chinese contacts with civilizations including Dayuan Kangju Daxia Shendu and Anxi marking the beginning of Silk Road trade networks extending to Rome.
Wang Mang appointed regent as Marshall of State on the 16th of August under Emperor Ping who died on the 3rd of February 6 AD. Ruzi Ying was chosen as heir and Wang Mang served as acting emperor for the child promising to relinquish control once he came of age. On the 10th of January Wang Mang claimed divine Mandate of Heaven called for end of Han dynasty beginning his own Xin dynasty lasting from 9 to 23 AD. He initiated major reforms outlawing slavery nationalizing land distribution introducing new currencies debasing coinage value despite considerable opposition. Massive floods struck in AD 11 causing Yellow River splitting into two branches overwhelming flood control works dislodging thousands of peasant farmers joining roving bandit groups like Red Eyebrows. Wang Mang's armies failed quelling enlarged rebel groups until insurgent mob forced entry into Weiyang Palace killing him. Gengshi Emperor descendant of Emperor Jing attempted restoring Han dynasty occupying Chang'an but overwhelmed by Red Eyebrow rebels deposing assassinating replacing him with puppet monarch Liu Penzi. Liu Xiu known posthumously as Emperor Guangwu distinguished himself at Battle of Kunyang in 23 AD succeeding Gengshi as emperor. Under Guangwu Luoyang became capital in 25 AD while officers Deng Yu and Feng Yi forced Red Eyebrows surrender executing leaders for treason by 27 AD. From 26 until 36 AD Emperor Guangwu waged war against regional warlords claiming title of emperor reunifying China under Han.
In 92 AD with aid of eunuch Zheng Zhong Emperor He had Empress Dowager Dou put under house arrest stripping her clan power revenge for Dou purging natural mother Consort Liang concealing identity from him. After Emperor He death wife Empress Deng Sui managed state affairs regent empress dowager during turbulent financial crisis widespread Qiang rebellion lasting 107 to 118 AD. When Empress Dowager Deng died Emperor An convinced by accusations of eunuchs Li Run and Jiang Jing dismissed Deng family exiling forcing many suicide. Empress Dowager Yan placed child Marquess of Beixiang throne attempting retaining power within family but palace eunuch Sun Cheng masterminded successful overthrow enthrone Emperor Shun placing Yan under house arresting relatives killing slaughtering allies. Regent Liang Ji brother Empress Liang Na killed brother-in-law Consort Deng Mengnü resisting control attempts then Emperor Huan employed eunuchs depose Liang Ji forcing suicide. Students imperial university organized widespread protest against eunuchs Emperor Huan alienated bureaucracy initiating grandiose construction projects hosting thousands concubines harem time economic crisis. Palace eunuchs imprisoned official Li Ying associates Imperial University dubious charge treason marking beginning Partisan Prohibitions in 167 AD when Grand Commandant Dou Wu convinced son-in-law Emperor Huan release them permanently barring service office. Under Emperor Ling eunuchs Zhao Zhong Zhang Rang entrusted affairs state while emperor spent time roleplaying concubines participating military parades auctioning top government offices.
In 136 BC Emperor Wu abolished all academic chairs not concerned Five Classics establishing Imperial University 124 BC encouraging nominees office receive Confucian education. Han Confucianism Emperor Wu reign creation Dong Zhongshu aggregating ethical Confucian ideas ritual filial piety harmonious relationships five phases yin-yang cosmologies justifying imperial system natural order universe. Imperial University grew importance student body growing over 30,000 by 2nd century AD. Confucian-based education available commandery-level schools private schools small towns teachers earning respectable incomes tuition payments. Schools established far southern regions standard Chinese texts used assimilate local populace. Philosophy written Yang Xiong Huan Tan Wang Chong Wang Fu questioned human nature innately good evil posing challenges Dong universal order. Shiji started Sima Tan finished son Sima Qian established standard model imperial China tradition official histories emulated Book Han authored Ban Biao son Ban Gu daughter Ban Zhao biographies important figures gentry members. Dictionaries published Han period including Shuowen Jiezi Xu Shen Fangyan Yang Xiong. Han dynasty poetry dominated fu genre achieving greatest prominence reign Emperor Wu. Some important texts created studied scholars including Xiping Stone Classics installed during Emperor Ling reign roadside imperial university outside Luoyang instigation Cai Yong fearing Classics housed imperial library interpolated University Academicians.
The oldest known Chinese piece hempen paper dates 2nd century BC while standard papermaking process invented Cai Lun AD 50-121 in 105. Oldest surviving piece paper writing found ruins Han watchtower abandoned AD 110 Inner Mongolia. Blast furnaces converting raw iron ore pig iron operational late Spring Autumn period producing cast iron remelted cupola furnace cold blast hot blast. Bloomery non-existent ancient China Han-era produced wrought iron injecting excess oxygen furnace causing decarburisation Cast iron pig iron converted wrought iron steel fining process. Three-legged iron seed drill invented 2nd century BC enabling farmers plant crops rows instead sowing seeds hand. Heavy mouldboard iron plough invented requiring one man control two oxen pull three ploughshares seed box turning soil sowing roughly land single day. Grain intendant Zhao Guo created alternating fields system daitianfa switching positions furrows ridges growing seasons officially sponsored encouraging peasants use. Pit field system heavily fertilized pits not requiring ploughs oxen placed sloping terrain paddy fields chiefly used grow rice Huai River transplantation methods production. Hydraulic-powered armillary spheres astronomy discerned cardinal direction distant earthquakes inverted pendulums seismometers negative numbers mathematics raised-relief maps rudders steering ships.
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Common questions
When did the Han dynasty begin and who founded it?
The Han dynasty began in 202 BC when Liu Bang assumed the title of Emperor. He is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu after defeating Xiang Yu at the Battle of Gaixia.
What were the major military conflicts between the Han dynasty and the Xiongnu?
Han forces fought the Xiongnu from 200 BC to 133 BC under the heqin agreement before launching massive invasions culminating in 119 BC at the Battle of Mobei. The conflict ended with Huhanye submitting as a tributary vassal in 51 BC and Zhizhi Chanyu being killed by Han forces in modern Taraz Kazakhstan.
How did Wang Mang end the Western Han dynasty and what happened during his rule?
Wang Mang claimed the divine Mandate of Heaven on the 10th of January 9 AD to establish the Xin dynasty which lasted until 23 AD. His rule included major reforms outlawing slavery and nationalizing land distribution before massive floods in AD 11 caused peasant uprisings that led to his death.
When was Confucianism established as the state ideology of the Han dynasty?
Emperor Wu abolished all academic chairs not concerning the Five Classics in 136 BC and established the Imperial University in 124 BC to encourage Confucian education. Dong Zhongshu created Han Confucianism during Emperor Wu's reign to justify the imperial system through ethical ideas and cosmologies.
What technological innovations were developed during the Han dynasty period?
Standard papermaking was invented by Cai Lun in 105 AD while blast furnaces converting raw iron ore into pig iron operated from the late Spring Autumn period. The three-legged iron seed drill was invented in the 2nd century BC enabling farmers to plant crops in rows instead of sowing seeds by hand.