Ideology
Antoine Destutt de Tracy coined the word ideology in 1796 while imprisoned during the Reign of Terror. He conceived it as a science of ideas to develop a rational system against irrational mob impulses. The term combines Greek roots for idea and study of. Tracy read works by Locke and Condillac while locked up from November 1793 until October 1794. His goal was forming a secure foundation for moral and political sciences based on sensations people experience interacting with the material world. Ideology became his liberal philosophy defending individual liberty, property rights, free markets, and constitutional limits on state power. Napoleon Bonaparte later turned this neutral term into an insult hurled at liberal foes within his Institut national. Karl Mannheim noted modern meaning emerged when Napoleon labeled opponents ideologues. Tracy published major work titled Elements of Ideology between 1804 and 1815 which translated quickly across European languages. Post-Napoleonic governments adopted reactionary stances influencing Italian, Spanish, Russian thinkers describing themselves as liberals attempting reignite revolutionary activity early 1820s including Carbonari societies France Italy Decembrists Russia.
Karl Marx redefined ideology as false consciousness serving ruling class interests through economic base superstructure dynamics. In Marxist model base denotes relations modes production determining political superstructure containing dominant ideologies like religion legal systems political structures. Ruling class controls means mental production alongside material production shaping societal justifications confusing alienated groups via false consciousness. Antonio Gramsci used cultural hegemony explaining why working class hold false ideological conceptions best interests. Marx argued class possessing means material production simultaneously controls means mental production. Marxist formulation ideology instrument social reproduction conceptually important sociology knowledge discipline lexical disputes over word meaning false consciousness advocated Marx versus false position statement itself correct irrelevant context produced Max Weber opinion. Karl Mannheim developed progressed total special Marxist conception general total ideological conception acknowledging all ideology including Marxism resulted social life idea developed sociologist Pierre Bourdieu. Slavoj Žižek Frankfurt School added psychoanalytic insight ideologies include unconscious ideas beyond conscious ones Guy Debord French Marxist theorist Situationist International founding member argued commodity essential category society process commodification consummated fullest extent image society propagated commodity colonizes life reduces society mere representation Society Spectacle.
Research shows political ideology somewhat genetically heritable according to studies by Cloninger et al 1993 Alford Funk Hibbing 2005 American Political Science Review. Jost Ledgerwood Hardin propose ideologies function prepackaged units interpretation spread basic human motives understand world avoid existential threat maintain valued interpersonal relationships. Just-world theory posits people want believe fair world sense control security generate ideologies justify inequality unfortunate events. Terror management theory posits ideology used defence mechanism against threats worldview protect individual self-esteem reduce awareness mortality evidence priming individuals mortality awareness cause respond ways underpinned particular ideology rather ideology currently aware. System justification theory posits people tend defend existing society times interest creates ideological explanations justify status quo. Motivation protect preexisting system desire cognitive consistency thinking similar ways over time reducing uncertainty effort illusion control fear equality. Psychologists agree personality traits individual difference variables needs ideological beliefs seem common. Althusser dubbed humans ideological animal large amount research psychology concerned causes consequences content ideology. Ideologies reflect unconscious motivational processes view political convictions always reflect independent unbiased thinking.
Ronald Inglehart University Michigan author World Values Survey since 1980 mapped social attitudes 100 countries representing 90% global population results indicate where people live likely closely correlate ideological beliefs much Africa South Asia Middle East people prefer traditional beliefs less tolerant liberal values Protestant Europe adheres secular beliefs liberal values United States exceptional adherence traditional beliefs Christianity alone high-income countries. Political ideology certain ethical set ideals principles doctrines myths symbols social movement institution class large group explains how society work offering political cultural blueprint certain social order. Two dimensions goals how society should work methods most appropriate ways achieve ideal arrangement. Classification difficult due cultural relativity definitions Americans call conservatism world calls liberalism neoliberalism Finland conservatism labeled socialism United States. Post 1991 many commentators claim living post-ideological age redemptive all-encompassing ideologies failed Francis Fukuyama writings end history Nienhueser sees research human resource management ongoingly generating ideology Slavoj Žižek argues notion post-ideology enable deepest blindest form ideology false consciousness false cynicism lending point view respect objective pretending neutral truly so lapse deepens commitment existing one Peter Sloterdijk advanced same idea already 1988 called post-modernist trap.
Dominant groups use cultural beliefs practices justify systems inequality maintain group social power non-dominant populations ideologies use society symbol system organize social relations hierarchy some identities superior others considered inferior passed along major social institutions media family education religion. Sociological examples include racism sexism heterosexism ableism ethnocentrism Sally Haslanger stated function ideology stabilize perpetuate dominance masking illusion Hannah Arendt wrote ideology differs simple opinion claims possess key history solution riddles universe intimate knowledge hidden universal laws rule nature man. When political ideology becomes dominantly pervasive component government speak ideocracy different forms government use ideology various ways not always restricted politics society certain ideas schools thought favored rejected depending compatibility reigning social order. Crane Brinton Anatomy Revolution said new ideology spreads discontent old regime may repeated revolutions extremists Vladimir Lenin Robespierre overcome moderate revolutionaries stage soon followed Thermidor reining back revolutionary enthusiasm pragmatists Napoleon Joseph Stalin bring normalcy equilibrium sequence men ideas fanatics practical men action reiterated J William Fulbright Arrogance Power similar form occurs Eric Hoffer True Believer.
Semiotician Bob Hodge identified unitary object incorporates complex sets meanings social agents processes produced term captures object well ideology Foucault episteme too narrow abstract not social enough discourse popular covers terrain less baggage confined verbal systems worldview too metaphysical propaganda too loaded despite contradictions still plays key role semiotics oriented social political life Michael Freeden incorporated semantic analysis study ideologies recently Christian Duncker called critical reflection ideology concept strove bring foreground closely connected concerns epistemology history defining terms system presentations explicitly implicitly lay claim absolute truth. Studies show political ideology somewhat genetically heritable Cloninger et al 1993 Alford Funk Hibbing 2005 American Political Science Review. Deep ecology modern ecology movement Green parties appear adopted ecological sciences positive ideology notable economically based ideologies neoliberalism monetarism mercantilism mixed economy social Darwinism communism laissez-faire economics free trade current theories safe trade fair trade seen ideologies. Perceptual psychologist James J Gibson believed human perception ecological relationships basis self-awareness cognition itself Linguist George Lakoff proposed cognitive science mathematics fundamental ideas arithmetic consequences products human perception necessarily evolved within ecology.
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Common questions
Who coined the word ideology and when was it created?
Antoine Destutt de Tracy coined the word ideology in 1796 while imprisoned during the Reign of Terror. He conceived it as a science of ideas to develop a rational system against irrational mob impulses.
How did Napoleon Bonaparte change the meaning of ideology?
Napoleon Bonaparte later turned this neutral term into an insult hurled at liberal foes within his Institut national. Karl Mannheim noted modern meaning emerged when Napoleon labeled opponents ideologues.
What is the Marxist definition of ideology regarding social classes?
Karl Marx redefined ideology as false consciousness serving ruling class interests through economic base superstructure dynamics. Ruling class controls means mental production alongside material production shaping societal justifications confusing alienated groups via false consciousness.
Is political ideology genetically heritable according to research studies?
Research shows political ideology somewhat genetically heritable according to studies by Cloninger et al 1993 Alford Funk Hibbing 2005 American Political Science Review. Psychologists agree personality traits individual difference variables needs ideological beliefs seem common.
Why do dominant groups use ideologies to maintain power over non-dominant populations?
Dominant groups use cultural beliefs practices justify systems inequality maintain group social power non-dominant populations ideologies use society symbol system organize social relations hierarchy some identities superior others considered inferior passed along major social institutions media family education religion. Sally Haslanger stated function ideology stabilize perpetuate dominance masking illusion.