Principate

• 1. Defining The Principate

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  The German scholar Theodor Mommsen proposed the term Principate in the 19th century to describe a constitutional system where imperial authority sat inside Republican institutions. He viewed this arrangement as an extension of the republic until its rupture in the third century when it became the Dominate. Historian Jochen Bleicken credits Mommsen with introducing these concepts as a framework for periodizing Roman imperial history. Mommsen also introduced the concept of diarchy to describe the early imperial system where power was formally shared between Augustus and the Senate from 27 BC. Since the early 20th century scholars have increasingly rejected this view calling the Principate a variant of monarchy instead. Ronald Syme led historians who now place more emphasis on the Augustan Principate over the Dominate. There has been a greater focus on how rulers interacted with communities during the 1960s to mid-1980s than on legal frameworks. In 21st-century scholarship the phrase Augustan Age is widely used to frame the period associated with the development of the Augustan Principate. However Bleicken considers the term unsuitable due to flawed legal basis and misunderstandings it creates such as viewing the earlier imperial period as having more freedom.

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• 2. Augustus Political Settlements

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  On the 13th of January 27 BC Octavian made a show of returning full power to the Senate and relinquishing his control of the Roman provinces and their armies. The Senate proposed that he once again assume command of the provinces which served as a ratification of his extra-constitutional power. Feigning reluctance on the 16th of January 27 BC he accepted a ten-year responsibility of overseeing provinces considered chaotic. Command of these provinces provided Octavian with control over the majority of Rome's legions while maintaining a republican facade for the autocratic principate. On the 1st of July 23 BC Augustus gave up his consulship after dealing with a severe illness but retained consular imperium throughout the empire. This led to a second compromise between him and the Senate regarding what became known as the Marcus Primus affair. The Senate granted Augustus a form of general imperium proconsulare applicable throughout the empire not solely to his provinces. They augmented this into imperium proconsulare maius giving constitutional power superior to all other proconsuls. During the second settlement Augustus was also granted the power of tribune for life though not the official title of tribune. This power allowed him to convene the Senate at will veto actions preside over elections and speak first at any meeting.

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• 3. Patronage And Military Control

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  Augustus described himself as the ultimate source of patronage pursuing an exchange relationship between two people of unequal status and resources. His financial power was unrivaled and underpinned his patronage system which strengthened the empire with loyalty and common identity. The conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt relieved his financial debts during civil wars and he controlled Roman Egypt directly forbidding senators from traveling there. He kept tight control over its highly lucrative taxation while receiving the title father of the country inscribed in various places like the Senate chambers. In Roman culture the father as head of household was highly regarded and Augustus preferred the title pater than patronus. The security of his reign was built on military loyalty achieved through deliberate ways including splitting management of provinces with the Senate. Even though the Senate initially controlled some legions Augustus ended up with complete control over the army. He institutionalized command of the military into the Principate by handling more troublesome provinces while leaving others to senatorial oversight. This arrangement ensured that armed forces in the city came under sole authority of Augustus rather than urban praetors or consuls.

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• 4. Evolution Of Imperial Office

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  Tiberius acquired his powers piecemeal and emphasized his place as first citizen stating a good princeps ought to be servant of the Senate. Caligula took in one day all honours which Augustus had difficulty been induced to accept according to Dio Cassius. Under this strict sense of the Principate political reality of autocratic rule remained scrupulously masked by forms inherited from the un-crowned Republic. Imperial propaganda developed paternalistic ideology presenting the princeps as incarnation of virtues such as clemency justice and military leadership. Tiberius amassed huge surplus for Rome yet was criticized as miser while successor Caligula faced criticism for lavish spending on games. Generally it was expected of Emperor to be generous but not frivolous providing occasional public games gladiators chariot races and artistic shows. Large distributions of food served as popularity boosters while construction of public works provided paid employment for the poor. With fall of Julio-Claudian dynasty in AD 68 principate became more formalized under Emperor Vespasian from AD 69 onwards. The position of princeps became distinct entity within broader formally still republican Roman constitution allowing civilian aspect of Augustan ideal to give way to military role.

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• 5. Succession And Dynastic Shifts

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  Under Antonine dynasty standard practice involved Emperor appointing successful individual as successor though modern scholarship generally rejects intention that succession determined on basis ability rather than heredity. This period saw several firsts including recognized period of rule by two emperors during co-rule of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus from their accession in 161 AD until latter death in 169 AD. Succession of Commodus marked first transfer of power to son born to sitting emperor despite often ranking amongst worst Roman emperors. His twelve-year reign followed by civil war between rival generals and final dynasty of Principate known as Severan dynasty. Rule no longer extended on basis merit or auctoritas but on firmer basis allowing Vespasian and future emperors to designate own heir without heirs earning position through years success. The crisis of third century linked to end of this conventional period lasting from beginning with reign of Augustus as first Roman emperor in 27 BC.

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