Roman Empire
In 27 BC, the Roman Senate granted Octavian overarching military power and bestowed upon him a new title. This single act marked his accession as the first Roman emperor, known to history as Augustus. The vast territories previously conquered during the Republic were now organized into senatorial provinces governed by proconsuls appointed annually by lot. Imperial provinces belonged directly to the emperor but were administered by legates he chose himself. Rome had expanded its rule from the Italian peninsula to most of the Mediterranean and beyond by 100 BC. However, internal conflicts and civil wars had severely destabilized the state. These struggles culminated in the victory of Octavian over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Following this defeat, the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt was conquered. Although the republic stood in name, Augustus held all meaningful authority. During his forty-year rule, a new constitutional order emerged that allowed Tiberius to succeed him as de facto monarch.
The two hundred years beginning with Augustus's rule are traditionally regarded as the Pax Romana or Roman Peace. Cohesion of the empire was furthered by social stability and economic prosperity never before experienced by Rome. Uprisings in the provinces were infrequent and put down mercilessly and swiftly. The success of Augustus in establishing principles of dynastic succession was limited by his outliving many talented potential heirs. The Julio-Claudian dynasty lasted for four more emperors including Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. This line yielded in 69 AD to the Year of the Four Emperors from which Vespasian emerged as victor. Vespasian founded the brief Flavian dynasty followed by the Nerva-Antonine dynasty producing five good emperors. Hadrian ruled from 117 to 138 and is noted for consolidating frontiers and embarking on ambitious building projects. In Judaea he visited the region in 129 CE and refounded Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina naming it after his family and the Capitoline Triad. His measures combined with restrictions on Jewish practices helped spark the Bar Kokhba Revolt between 132 and 135 CE.
In the third century the Empire underwent a forty-nine-year crisis threatening its existence due to civil war plagues and barbarian invasions. The Gallic and Palmyrene empires broke away from the state while short-lived emperors led the realm. Aurelian stabilized the empire militarily before Diocletian reorganized and restored much of it in 285. Diocletian's reign brought the most concerted effort against Christianity known as the Great Persecution. He divided the empire into four regions each ruled by a separate tetrarch. Confident that he fixed the disorder plaguing Rome, he abdicated along with his co-emperor but the Tetrarchy collapsed shortly after. Order was eventually restored by Constantine the Great who became the first emperor to convert to Christianity. He established Constantinople as the new capital of the Eastern Empire during the decades of the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties. The empire was divided along an east-west axis with dual power centers in Constantinople and Rome. Julian briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors under the influence of his adviser Mardonius attempting to restore Classical Roman religion. Theodosius I died in 395 AD making Christianity the state religion.
The Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate in the early fifth century. Romans fought off all invaders including Attila but had assimilated so many Germanic peoples of dubious loyalty that the empire started to dismember itself. Most chronologies place the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476 when Romulus Augustulus was forced to abdicate to Odoacer. Odoacer ended the Western Empire by declaring Zeno sole emperor while placing himself as Zeno's nominal subordinate. In reality Italy was ruled by Odoacer alone. The Eastern Roman Empire called the Byzantine Empire by later historians continued until the reign of Constantine XI Palaiologos. He died in battle in 1453 against Mehmed II and his Ottoman forces during the siege of Constantinople. Mehmed II adopted the title of caesar in an attempt to claim a connection to the former Empire. His claim was soon recognized by the Patriarchate of Constantinople though not by European monarchs. The Migration Period involving large invasions by Germanic peoples led to the decline of the Western Roman Empire.
The early Empire was monetized to near-universal extent using money to state prices and debts. Augustus established a practical three-tier currency system Romans used daily: gold aureus for major purchases silver denarius for wages and bronze sestertius for shopping. Most accounts rents and public fees were reckoned in sesterces even when payment arrived as other coins converted at fixed ratios. Rome had no central bank and regulation of banking was minimal. Banks kept less in reserves than total customer deposits while professional deposit bankers lent money to third parties. The senatorial elite were heavily involved in private lending both as creditors and borrowers. A typical bank had fairly limited capital often only one principal. Only one serious credit shortage occurred in 33 AD generally available capital exceeded borrower needs. Emperors debased the currency particularly the denarius under pressures of meeting military payrolls. Sudden inflation under Commodus damaged the credit market while conditions during the Crisis of the Third Century greatly diminished the money supply. Despite Diocletian's introduction of the gold solidus monetary reforms never fully restored robustness to the credit market.
Roman temples developed Etruscan and Greek forms with distinctive elements including arch vault and dome. Roman roads are considered most advanced built until early nineteenth century while bridges were among first large lasting structures using stone and concrete. Trajan's bridge over lower Danube constructed by Apollodorus of Damascus remained longest bridge built for over millennium. Romans built many dams and reservoirs such as Subiaco Dams feeding Anio Novus largest aqueduct of Rome. Masonry channels carried water along precise gradient using gravity alone collected in tanks fed through pipes to fountains baths toilets or industrial sites. Aqua Claudia and Aqua Marcia were main aqueducts in Rome while complex system supplying Constantinople drew distant source from over 120 km away. Insulated glazing used in public baths while hypocaust heating provided warmth in elite housing. Romans were first culture assembling essential components of later steam engine including crank connecting rod cylinder piston non-return valves gearing. The Flavian Amphitheatre known as Colosseum stands today due to sophisticated cement methods making cements durable.
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Common questions
When did the Roman Empire begin and who was its first emperor?
The Roman Empire began in 27 BC when Octavian received overarching military power from the Senate. This act marked his accession as Augustus, the first Roman emperor.
What were the main causes of the Crisis of the Third Century for the Roman Empire?
The Crisis of the Third Century lasted forty-nine years and was caused by civil war, plagues, and barbarian invasions. During this period, the Gallic and Palmyrene empires broke away while short-lived emperors led the realm.
How long did the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantine Empire last after the fall of the West?
The Eastern Roman Empire continued until the death of Constantine XI Palaiologos on the 29th of May 1453 AD during the siege of Constantinople. He died in battle against Mehmed II and his Ottoman forces.
What legal status did freeborn women hold within Roman society under Roman law?
Freeborn Roman women were considered citizens but could not vote, hold political office, or serve in the military. They could own property, enter contracts, engage in business, and their citizen status determined that of her children.
Which three-tier currency system did Augustus establish for daily use in Rome?
Augustus established a practical three-tier currency system using gold aureus for major purchases, silver denarius for wages, and bronze sestertius for shopping. Most accounts, rents, and public fees were reckoned in sesterces even when payment arrived as other coins converted at fixed ratios.