Government

• 1. Etymology And Definition

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  The word government derives from the Greek verb meaning to steer with a gubernaculum or rudder. This metaphorical sense appears in classical literature, including Plato's Ship of State. The Cambridge Dictionary defines government as the system used for controlling a country, city, or group of people. It also describes an organization that officially manages and controls a region while creating laws and collecting taxes. In British English, the term sometimes refers to what is known as a ministry or administration. This usage points to the policies and officials of a particular executive coalition. Other languages use cognates with narrower scopes, such as the government of Portugal which resembles the concept of administration. The word often serves as a synonym for rule or governance itself.

• 2. Historical Evolution Of States

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  About 5,000 years ago, the first small city-states appeared on human history. By the third to second millenniums BC, some developed into larger governed areas like Sumer and ancient Egypt. Agriculture enabled food surpluses after the Neolithic Revolution. These surpluses allowed people to specialize in non-agricultural activities. Some specialized roles included ruling over others as external authorities. Others involved social experimentation with diverse governance models. Both activities formed the basis of governments. David Christian explains how these systems grew complex as agriculture supported denser populations. New interactions and social pressures required control mechanisms. Another explanation involves managing infrastructure projects like water systems. Historically, this required centralized administration seen in regions like Mesopotamia. Archaeological evidence shows similar successes with more egalitarian societies. Starting at the end of the 17th century, republican forms gained prevalence. The English Civil War and Glorious Revolution contributed to representative growth. The American Revolution and French Revolution further expanded these forms. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, liberal democracy has become even more prevalent.

• 3. Classification Systems And Typologies

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  Plato divided governments into five basic types in his book The Republic written around 375 BC. Aristocracy represents rule by law and order like ideal traditional benevolent kingdoms. Timocracy signifies rule by honor and duty exemplified by Sparta as a military state. Oligarchy denotes rule by wealth and market-based ethics resembling laissez-faire capitalist states. Democracy embodies pure liberty and equality for free citizens. Tyranny rules through fear like a despot. These regimes progressively degenerate starting with aristocracy at the top and tyranny at the bottom. Aristotle elaborated on Plato's five regimes discussing them in relation to government of one, few, or many people. Thomas Hobbes stated their classification differently. Yale professor Juan José Linz identified three main types today: democracies, totalitarian regimes, and authoritarian regimes with hybrid systems. Modern classification includes monarchies as standalone entities or hybrids. Scholars generally refer to dictatorship as either authoritarianism or totalitarianism. Identifying forms can be challenging because political systems originate from socio-economic movements. Parties carrying these movements often name themselves after ideologies. Voltaire argued that the Holy Roman Empire is neither Holy nor Roman nor an Empire. In practice, the Soviet Union was a centralized autocratic one-party state under Joseph Stalin.

• 4. Structural Branches And Powers

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  Governments are typically organized into distinct institutions constituting branches with particular powers and duties. An independent parallel distribution of powers between branches is called separation of powers. A shared intersecting or overlapping distribution is fusion of powers. Governments often organize into three branches with separate powers: legislature, executive, and judiciary. This structure is sometimes called the trias politica model. However, parliamentary and semi-presidential systems feature intersecting branches with shared membership. Many governments have fewer or additional branches like independent electoral commissions. Federalism describes a system where sovereignty divides constitutionally between central authority and constituent units. These units varyly called states, provinces, or otherwise create federations. Proponents are often called federalists. The United States serves as a federal constitutional republic example. The former Soviet Union functioned as a federal socialist republic. Self-identification remains subjective while defining regimes proves tricky especially de facto when government and economy deviate in practice. Boundaries of classifications remain fluid or ill-defined within political science fields.

• 5. Political Parties And Party Systems

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  Presently most governments are administered by members of explicitly constituted political parties coordinating activities. In multiparty systems multiple parties gain control through elections though effective numbers may be limited. A majority government holds an absolute majority of seats in parliament. Minority governments hold only plurality seats depending on confidence-and-supply arrangements. Coalition governments form when multiple parties cooperate under agreements. Single-party governments form without coalition support typical of majority governments. Some minority governments consist of one party unable to find willing partners. States maintaining single-party rule within nominally multiparty systems possess dominant-party systems. One-party systems grant exclusive rights to ruling parties forming other parties may be obstructed or illegal. Absolute monarchy and non-partisan democracy represent non-partisan systems. More than half the nations in the world are democracies reaching 97 of 167 as of 2021. However, the world becomes more authoritarian with a quarter of population under backsliding governments. The Global State of Democracy 2021 report from International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance tracks these trends.

• 6. Public Administration And Services

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  Governmental property state-owned enterprises public services civil servants and employees compose the public sector economy. Modern developed countries provide courts education electricity emergency services environmental protection health care mail military policing public buildings broadcasting libraries parks utilities transportation social services state schools telecommunications infrastructure waste management water supply networks. Developing countries often lack well-developed public services. Water services might only reach wealthy middle classes there. Political reasons subsidize services reducing finance available for expansion to poorer communities. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5 aims to influence provision to marginalized demographics. Mid-twentieth century saw rise of German sociologist Max Weber's bureaucracy theory bringing substantive interest in public administration. Public policy includes various aspects like education health care employment finance economics transportation all over elements of society. Public policy making characterizes dynamic complex interactive system resolving problems through new policy creation or reform. Tax offices in Finland operated in 1945 while Vital Records Offices opened in Santo André Brazil by 2019.