Philosophy
The word philosophy comes from the Ancient Greek words philia and sophia. Some sources say that the term was coined by the pre-Socratic philosopher Pythagoras, but this is not certain. The word entered the English language primarily from Old French and Anglo-Norman starting around 1175 CE. The French philosophie is itself a borrowing from the Latin philosophia. The term philosophy acquired the meanings of advanced study of speculative subjects like logic, ethics, physics, and metaphysics. It also meant deep wisdom consisting of love of truth and virtuous living. Before the modern age, the term philosophy was used in a wide sense. It included most forms of rational inquiry such as individual sciences as its subdisciplines. Natural philosophy was a major branch of philosophy. This branch encompassed a wide range of fields including disciplines like physics, chemistry, and biology. An example of this usage is the 1687 book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica by Isaac Newton. This book referred to natural philosophy in its title but it is today considered a book of physics. The meaning of philosophy changed toward the end of the modern period when it acquired the more narrow meaning common today. In this new sense the term is mainly associated with disciplines like metaphysics epistemology and ethics.
Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE with the pre-Socratics. They attempted to provide rational explanations of the cosmos as a whole. The philosophy following them was shaped by Socrates who lived from 469 to 399 BCE. Plato lived from 427 to 347 BCE and Aristotle lived from 384 to 322 BCE. They expanded the range of topics to questions like how people should act and how to arrive at knowledge. Arabic, Persian philosophy arose in the early 9th century CE as a response to discussions in the Islamic theological tradition. Its classical period lasted until the 12th century CE and was strongly influenced by ancient Greek philosophers. Al-Kindi lived from 801 to 873 CE and is usually regarded as the first philosopher of this tradition. Avicenna lived from 980 to 1037 CE and developed a comprehensive philosophical system to provide a rational understanding of reality. Indian philosophy started around 900 BCE when the Vedas were written. Buddhism was founded by Gautama Siddhartha who lived from 563 to 483 BCE. Jainism was founded by Mahavira who lived from 599 to 527 BCE. Chinese philosophy emerged in the 6th century BCE with competing attempts to resolve political turbulence. Confucius lived from 551 to 479 BCE and focused on different forms of moral virtues. Daoism was founded by Laozi in the 6th century BCE and examined how humans can live in harmony with nature.
Epistemology studies what knowledge is and how to acquire it. It also examines the nature of truth belief justification and rationality. Some questions addressed by epistemologists include By what method or methods can one acquire knowledge. Ethics investigates moral principles and what constitutes right conduct. It explores what the standards of morality are and how to live a good life. Logic is the study of correct reasoning and explores how good arguments can be distinguished from bad ones. Metaphysics examines the most general features of reality existence objects and properties. Other subfields are aesthetics philosophy of language philosophy of mind and philosophy of religion. Epistemology is primarily interested in declarative knowledge like knowing that Princess Diana died in 1997. But it also investigates practical knowledge such as knowing how to ride a bicycle. Meta-ethics asks abstract questions about the nature and sources of morality. Normative ethics encompasses general theories of how to distinguish between right and wrong conduct. Applied ethics studies the consequences of general theories developed by normative ethics in specific situations. Formal logic uses artificial languages with a precise symbolic representation to investigate arguments. Deductively valid arguments follow a rule of inference like modus ponens which has the logical form p if p then q therefore q.
Philosophers use conceptual analysis to clarify the meaning of concepts by analyzing them into their component parts. They rely on common sense and intuitions to draw unexpected conclusions from commonly accepted beliefs. Thought experiments employ counterfactual thinking to evaluate possible consequences of an imagined situation. The trolley problem is a thought experiment that investigates the moral difference between doing and allowing harm. This issue is explored in an imaginary situation where a person can sacrifice a single person by redirecting a trolley to save a group of people. Phenomenologists practice a radical suspension of theoretical assumptions about reality to get back to things themselves. Edmund Husserl characterized philosophy as a rigorous science investigating essences. Pragmatists stress the significance of concrete practical consequences for assessing whether a philosophical theory is true. Charles Sanders Peirce formulated the pragmatic maxim stating that the idea a person has of an object is nothing more than the totality of practical consequences they associate with this object. Methodological naturalism places great emphasis on the empirical approach and resulting theories found in natural sciences. It contrasts with methodologies that give more weight to pure reasoning and introspection. Philosophical inquiry often does not use experimental data obtained through measuring equipment.
Philosophy provides an interdisciplinary perspective and studies the scope and fundamental concepts of other fields. In medicine philosophical considerations related to bioethics affect issues like whether an embryo is already a person. A closely related philosophical problem is how humans should treat other animals such as using non-human animals as food or for research experiments. In relation to business and professional life philosophy has contributed by providing ethical frameworks. They contain guidelines on which business practices are morally acceptable and cover corporate social responsibility. Epistemological problems in relation to law include what counts as evidence and how much evidence is required to find a person guilty of a crime. Philosophical ideas have prepared and shaped various political developments. Ideals formulated in Enlightenment philosophy laid the foundation for constitutional democracy and played a role in the American Revolution and the French Revolution. Marxist philosophy and its exposition of communism was one of the factors in the Russian Revolution and the Chinese Communist Revolution. Mahatma Gandhi's philosophy of non-violence shaped the Indian independence movement. Judith Butler is one of the philosophers responsible for the cultural influence of philosophy on the feminist movement. It has shaped the understanding of key concepts in feminism such as the meaning of gender and how it differs from biological sex.
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Common questions
Who coined the word philosophy and when did it enter English?
The term philosophy was likely coined by the pre-Socratic philosopher Pythagoras, though this is not certain. The word entered the English language primarily from Old French and Anglo-Norman starting around 1175 CE.
When did Western philosophy originate and which philosophers shaped its early development?
Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE with the pre-Socratics. Socrates lived from 469 to 399 BCE, Plato lived from 427 to 347 BCE, and Aristotle lived from 384 to 322 BCE.
What are the main subfields of philosophy and what does each study?
Epistemology studies knowledge and truth while ethics investigates moral principles and right conduct. Logic examines correct reasoning and metaphysics explores the general features of reality existence objects and properties.
How has philosophy influenced political movements and revolutions throughout history?
Ideals formulated in Enlightenment philosophy laid the foundation for constitutional democracy and played a role in the American Revolution and the French Revolution. Marxist philosophy contributed to the Russian Revolution and the Chinese Communist Revolution while Mahatma Gandhi's philosophy of non-violence shaped the Indian independence movement.
Which specific dates define the lives of key figures in Arabic and Indian philosophy traditions?
Al-Kindi lived from 801 to 873 CE and Avicenna lived from 980 to 1037 CE within the Islamic philosophical tradition. Buddhism was founded by Gautama Siddhartha who lived from 563 to 483 BCE and Jainism was founded by Mahavira who lived from 599 to 527 BCE.