Skip to content
— CH. 1 · INTRODUCTION —

Feminism

13 min listen · Ch. 1 of 8
8 sections

  • Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. It begins from a single claim about how the world is built. Modern societies, feminists argue, are patriarchal. They prioritize the male point of view, and women are treated unjustly within them. A person who advocates for feminism is known as a feminist. The word itself carries a strange origin. It first appeared in France in 1871, inside a medicine thesis, describing men with tuberculosis who had supposedly developed feminine traits. The label was meant as an insult. So how did a term born from medical scorn become the name of a movement credited with women's suffrage, reproductive rights, and the right to own property? What happens when a movement fractures into liberal, radical, and socialist camps that disagree on the cure? And why, two centuries after it began in late 18th-century Europe, do most people who hold its beliefs still refuse its name?

  • Charles Fourier, a utopian socialist and French philosopher, is often credited with coining the word feminisme in 1837. Yet no trace of the word has ever been found in his works. The term that did survive came from elsewhere, and it traveled by insult. After its 1871 appearance in that French medicine thesis, the word feministe was coined by Alexandre Dumas fils in a 1872 essay, referring to men who supported women's rights. In both early uses, the tone was hostile. The word reflected a criticism of a supposed confusion of the sexes, aimed at women who refused the sexual division of society. The concepts spread on their own timeline. They appeared in the Netherlands in 1872, in Great Britain in the 1890s, and in the United States in 1910. The Oxford English Dictionary dates the first English appearance in this meaning to 1895. Long before the label existed, the ideas had a founder. Mary Wollstonecraft is seen by many as a founder of feminism for her 1792 book A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. In it she argued that class and private property are the basis of discrimination against women, and that women as much as men needed equal rights. Historians still argue over the word's reach. Most western feminist historians count every movement working for women's rights as feminist, even those that never used the term. Others reserve the word for the modern movement, labeling earlier efforts protofeminist.

  • The history of the modern western feminist movement is divided into waves. The first comprised the women's suffrage movements of the 19th and early-20th centuries, promoting women's right to vote. In Britain and the United States it also focused on equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property rights. Legislation followed. The Custody of Infants Act 1839 in the UK introduced the tender years doctrine and gave women the right of custody of their children for the first time. The Married Women's Property Act 1870, extended in 1882, became a model for similar laws across British territories. Victoria passed such legislation in 1884 and New South Wales in 1889. The right to vote spread first through Britain's Australasian colonies. New Zealand granted women the vote in 1893, South Australia followed in 1894, and Australia granted female suffrage in 1902. In Britain, the Representation of the People Act of 1918 gave the vote to women over 30 who owned property, extended in 1928 to all women over 21. The second wave, the women's liberation movement, began in the 1960s. It campaigned for legal and social equality, treating women's cultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked. The activist Carol Hanisch coined the slogan The Personal is Political, which became synonymous with the second wave. In or around 1992, a third wave was identified, focused on individuality and diversity. Some argue for a fourth wave beginning around 2012, using social media to combat harassment, violence, and rape culture, and best known for the Me Too movement.

  • Emmeline Pankhurst was the most notable activist in England, and Time named her one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century. The magazine wrote that she shaped an idea of women for our time, and shook society into a new pattern from which there could be no going back. In the United States, the movement's leaders included Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Susan B. Anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery before championing women's right to vote. They were influenced by the Quaker theology of spiritual equality, which holds that men and women are equal under God. American first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the Nineteenth Amendment in 1919, granting women the vote in all states. In Germany, Clara Zetkin pursued women's politics through socialism, editing the SPD women's newspaper Die Gleichheit from 1891 to 1917. In 1907 she became leader of the newly founded Women's Office at the SPD, and she contributed to International Women's Day. The movement reached far beyond Europe. Qasim Amin, considered the father of Arab feminism, wrote The Liberation of Women in 1899, arguing for legal and social reforms. In 1923 Hoda Shaarawi founded the Egyptian Feminist Union and became a symbol of the Arab women's rights movement. The Iranian Constitutional Revolution of 1905 triggered the Iranian women's movement. During the Iranian revolution of 1979, many of the rights women had gained were systematically abolished, including the Family Protection Law.

  • By the mid-20th century, women in much of the world still lacked significant rights. In France, women obtained the right to vote only with the Provisional Government of the French Republic of the 21st of April 1944. The proposal to grant women eligibility had passed at the Consultative Assembly of Algiers, where after an amendment by Fernand Grenier they were given full citizenship, including the vote, adopted by a margin of 51 to 16. Switzerland lagged further behind. Women gained the right to vote in federal elections only in 1971. In the canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden, women could not vote on local issues until 1991, when the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland forced the change. In Liechtenstein, women won the vote through a referendum in 1984, after three earlier referendums in 1968, 1971, and 1973 had failed. Marriage law trapped women for just as long. In France, married women did not receive the right to work without their husband's permission until 1965. Feminists also fought the marital exemption in rape laws, which barred prosecuting husbands for raping their wives. Early efforts by figures such as Voltairine de Cleyre and Victoria Woodhull to criminalize marital rape in the late 19th century had failed. That goal was achieved a century later in most Western countries, and remains unachieved in many other parts of the world. Two books crystallized the discontent. Simone de Beauvoir published The Second Sex in 1949, offering a Marxist and existentialist view of feminism's questions. In 1963, Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique gave voice to American women's unhappiness and is credited with sparking second-wave feminism in the United States.

  • Liberal, radical, and socialist or Marxist feminism are sometimes called the Big Three schools of feminist thought. Liberal feminism arose from 19th-century first-wave feminism and seeks equality through political and legal reform within a liberal democratic framework, without radically altering the structure of society. It works within the structure of mainstream society to integrate women into that structure. Karin Maria Bruzelius, a former Norwegian supreme court justice, described it as a realistic, sober, practical feminism. According to Zhang and Rios, liberal feminism tends to be adopted by mainstream, middle-class women who do not disagree with the current social structure, and it is viewed as the dominant and default form. Radical feminism took a sharply different path. It arose from the radical wing of second-wave feminism and calls for a radical reordering of society to eliminate male supremacy. It views the male-controlled capitalist hierarchy as the defining feature of women's oppression, and demands the total uprooting and reconstruction of society. Separatist feminism does not support heterosexual relationships, and lesbian feminism is closely related. The materialist strands grew out of Western Marxist thought. Marxist feminism argues that capitalism is the root cause of women's oppression. Socialist feminism distinguishes itself by holding that women's liberation requires ending both the economic and cultural sources of oppression. Anarcha-feminists believe that struggling against the state requires struggling against patriarchy, which they see as an involuntary hierarchy.

  • Womanism emerged after early feminist movements were largely white and middle-class. For much of its history, feminist movements and theory were led predominantly by middle-class white women from Western Europe and North America. This began to change in the 1960s with the civil rights movement in the United States and the end of Western European colonialism. Some forms of feminism, such as white feminism and gender-critical feminism, have been criticized for considering only white, middle-class, college-educated, heterosexual, or cisgender perspectives. These criticisms produced black feminism and intersectional feminism. Third-wave feminism is traced to the riot grrrl feminist punk subculture in Olympia, Washington, in the early 1990s, and to Anita Hill's televised 1991 testimony before an all-male, all-white Senate Judiciary Committee that Clarence Thomas had sexually harassed her. The term third wave is credited to Rebecca Walker, who responded to Thomas's appointment to the Supreme Court with an article in Ms. magazine titled Becoming the Third Wave in 1992. She wrote, I am not a post-feminism feminist. I am the Third Wave. Feminist leaders rooted in the second wave, including Gloria Anzaldua, bell hooks, Audre Lorde, and Maxine Hong Kingston, sought space within feminist thought for race-related subjectivities. Decolonial feminism went further still. Maria Lugones proposed that the colonial imposition of gender cuts across ecology, economics, government, and everyday practice. Decolonial feminists like Karla Jessen Williamson examined colonialism as a force that imposed gender hierarchies on Indigenous women. Postfeminism reacts to all of this, holding that women have achieved second-wave goals while staying critical of later aims.

  • Merriam-Webster chose feminism as its 2017 Word of the Year, calling Word of the Year a quantitative measure of interest in a particular word. The label's popularity, however, hides a gap between belief and identity. According to a 2014 Ipsos poll covering 15 developed countries, 53 percent of respondents identified as feminists, and 87 percent agreed that women should be treated equally to men in all areas based on competency, not gender. Yet only 55 percent of women agreed that they have full equality with men. A 2015 poll found that 18 percent of Americans used the label feminist for themselves, while 85 percent were feminists in practice, believing in equality for women. A 2016 Survation poll for the Fawcett Society found just 7 percent of Britons used the label, while 83 percent supported equality of opportunity for women. The movement's concrete achievements are wide. Feminist campaigns are near-universally credited with women's suffrage, gender-neutral language, reproductive rights, and the right to enter contracts and own property. In the United States, the National Organization for Women began in 1966 to seek women's equality, including through the Equal Rights Amendment, which did not pass. Reproductive rights centred on Roe v. Wade, which enunciated a woman's right to choose whether to carry a pregnancy to term. In international law, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women has been described as an international bill of rights for women. The newest voices keep redrawing the map. In 2025, a group of 28 Nordic feminist studies departments, journals, and organizations defined feminism as a universal human rights movement built on solidarity, intersectionality, and compassion.

Common questions

What is feminism and what does it aim to achieve?

Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. It holds that modern societies are patriarchal and that women are treated unjustly within them. A person who advocates for feminism is known as a feminist.

When and where did feminism originate?

Feminist movements originated in late 18th-century Europe. Mary Wollstonecraft is seen by many as a founder for her 1792 book A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. The word feminisme first appeared in France in 1871, and the Oxford English Dictionary dates the first English appearance in this meaning to 1895.

What are the waves of feminism?

The modern western feminist movement is divided into waves. The first wave comprised the women's suffrage movements of the 19th and early-20th centuries. The second wave, the women's liberation movement, began in the 1960s. A third wave was identified in or around 1992, and some argue for a fourth wave beginning around 2012, best known for the Me Too movement.

What are the Big Three schools of feminist thought?

Liberal, radical, and socialist or Marxist feminism are sometimes called the Big Three schools of feminist thought. Liberal feminism seeks equality through political and legal reform within a liberal democratic framework. Radical feminism calls for a radical reordering of society to eliminate male supremacy, while Marxist feminism argues that capitalism is the root cause of women's oppression.

What rights have feminist movements achieved for women?

Feminist campaigns are near-universally credited with achieving women's suffrage, gender-neutral language, reproductive rights including access to contraceptives and abortion, and the right to enter into contracts and own property. New Zealand granted women the vote in 1893, and in the United States the Nineteenth Amendment granted the vote in all states in 1919.

How many people identify as feminists?

According to a 2014 Ipsos poll covering 15 developed countries, 53 percent of respondents identified as feminists, while 87 percent agreed women should be treated equally to men based on competency. A 2015 poll found 18 percent of Americans used the feminist label, though 85 percent were feminists in practice. A 2016 Survation poll found 7 percent of Britons used the label.

See all questions about Feminism →

All sources

334 references cited across the entry

  1. 1Felder, Deborah G. The American Women's Almanac: 500 Years of Making History. United States: Visible Ink Press, 2020.
  2. 2Davis, Ben. Art in the After-Culture: Capitalist Crisis and Cultural Strategy. United Kingdom: Haymarket Books, 2022.
  3. 3Breivik: What's behind clenched-fist salutes?Jon Kelly — 17 April 2012
  4. 4FeminismLaura Brunell et al. — Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. — 28 February 2024
  5. 5BookThe Concise Encyclopedia of SociologyPatricia Lengermann et al. — John Wiley & Sons — 2010
  6. 6BookThe Oxford Companion to PhilosophySusan Mendus — Oxford University Press — 2005
  7. 7BookGlobalization and Feminist ActivismMary E. Hawkesworth — Rowman & Littlefield — 2006
  8. 8BookWhat Is Feminism?Chris Beasley — SAGE — 1999
  9. 9BookThe Routledge Companion to Feminism and PostfeminismSarah Gamble — Routledge — 2001
  10. 10Women Rights
  11. 11BookDaring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967–1975Alice Echols — University of Minnesota Press — 1989
  12. 12MagazineWomen's WorkJacob Roberts — 2017
  13. 13BookDisciplining Feminism: From Social Activism to Academic DiscourseEllen Messer-Davidow — Duke University Press — 2002
  14. 14BookFeminism and Psychoanalytic TheoryChodorow, Nancy — Yale University Press — 1989
  15. 15JournalIn a Different Voice: Women's Conceptions of Self and of MoralityCarol Gilligan — 1977
  16. 16BookGender, Generations, and Communism in Central and Eastern Europe and Beyond2020
  17. 17BookMary Wollstonecraft, Pedagogy, and the Practice of FeminismRoutledge — 18 July 2013
  18. 18BookVindication: A Life of Mary WollstonecraftHarper Collins — 17 March 2009
  19. 19The Original Suffragette: The Extraordinary Mary Wollstonecraft5 October 2015
  20. 20Feminism in the 18th century and beyond
  21. 21JournalEarly Feminist Themes in French Utopian Socialism: The St.-Simonians And FourierLeslie F. Goldstein — 1982
  22. 22Féminisme : Appelation D'origine - Vacarme2 September 1997
  23. 23JournalDes corps « monstres ». Historique du stigmate féministeCaroline Fayolle — 2018
  24. 24BookStrijd Tegen De Stilte. Johanna Naber (1859–1941) En De Vrouwenstem in GeschiedenisMaria Grever — Hilversum Verloren — 1994
  25. 25JournalSur L'origine Des Mots 'Féminisme' Et 'Féministe'Karen Offen — 1987
  26. 26BookThe Grounding of Modern FeminismNancy F. Cott — Yale University Press — 1987
  27. 27FeminismOxford University Press — 2012
  28. 28BookThere's Always Been a Women's Movement This CenturyDale Spender — Pandora Press — 1983
  29. 29BookThe Creation of Feminist Consciousness From the Middle Ages to Eighteen-SeventyGerda Lerner — Oxford University Press — 1993
  30. 30BookFeminism: A Very Short IntroductionMargaret Walters — Oxford University Press — 2005
  31. 31BookThere's Always Been a Women's MovementJoan Kinnaird et al. — Pandora Press — 1983
  32. 32Feminist History of PhilosophyCharlotte Witt — 2006
  33. 33JournalFeminism, Social Science, And the Meanings of Modernity: The Debate on the Origin of the Family in Europe and the United States, 1860–1914Ann Taylor Allen — 1999
  34. 34Journal'Drawing the Line of Equality': Hannah Mather Crocker on Women's RightsEileen Hunt Botting et al. — 2006
  35. 35BookThe Dictionary of Feminist TheoryMaggie Humm — Ohio State University Press — 1995
  36. 36MagazineBecoming the Third WaveRebecca Walker — January–February 1992
  37. 37BookThe Feminist Fourth WavePrudence Chamberlain — 2017
  38. 38BookGender Communication Theories & Analyses: From Silence to Performance Gender communication theories & analyses: From silence to performanceCharlotte Kroløkke et al. — 2006
  39. 39Feminism - The Fourth Wave of Feminism
  40. 40Feminism: The Fourth Wave
  41. 41BookUntil They Are Seven, The Origins of Women's Legal RightsJohn Wroath — Waterside Press — 1998
  42. 42BookLord Melbourne, 1779–1848L. G. Mitchell — Oxford University Press — 1997
  43. 43BookThe Life of the Honourable Mrs. NortonJane Gray Perkins — John Murray — 1909
  44. 44Married Women's Property Act 1882UK Government — 1882
  45. 45BookNo Turning Back: The History of Feminism and the Future of WomenFreedman, Estelle B. — Ballantine Books — 2003
  46. 46Votes for Women Electoral CommissionElections New Zealand — 13 April 2005
  47. 47Women and the Right to Vote in AustraliaAustralian Electoral Commission — 28 January 2011
  48. 48BookThe Ascent of Woman: A History of the Suffragette Movement and the Ideas Behind ItPhillips, Melanie — Abacus — 2004
  49. 49MagazineEmmeline Pankhurst – Time 100 People of the CenturyMarina Warner — 14 June 1999
  50. 50BookWomen and Redemption: A Theological HistoryRosemary Radford Ruether — Fortress Press — 2012
  51. 51BookJohn Neal and Nineteenth Century American Literature and CultureKaren A. Weyler — Bucknell University Press — 2012
  52. 52BookHarriot Stanton Blatch and the Winning of Woman SuffrageDuBois, Ellen Carol — Yale University Press — 1997
  53. 53BookCentury of Struggle: The Woman's Rights Movement in the United StatesEleanor Flexner — The Belknap Press — 1996
  54. 54BookOne Woman, One Vote: Rediscovering the Woman Suffrage MovementMarjorie W. Wheeler — NewSage Press — 1995
  55. 55BookJailed for Freedom: American Women Win the VoteDoris Stevens et al. — NewSage Press — 1995
  56. 56JournalOn the Socialist Origins of International Women's DayTemma Kaplan — 1985
  57. 57History of International Women's DayUnited Nations
  58. 58BookWomen and Confucian Cultures in Premodern China, Korea, And JapanDorothy Ko et al. — University of California Press — 2003
  59. 59BookWomen Journalists and Feminism in China, 1898–1937Yuxin Ma — Cambria Press — 2010
  60. 60BookWomen in the New Taiwan: Gender Roles and Gender Consciousness in a Changing SocietyCatherine S. Farris et al. — M.E. Sharpe — 2004
  61. 61BookWomen's Literary Feminism in 20th-Century ChinaAmy D. Dooling — Macmillan — 2005
  62. 62BookEncyclopedia of Women in Today's WorldMary Zeiss Stange et al. — SAGE — 2011
  63. 63BookReading Arab Women's Autobiographies: Shahrazad Tells Her StoryNawar Al-Hassan Golley — University of Texas Press — 2003
  64. 64BookWomen in Iran from 1800 to the Islamic RepublicMansoureh Ettehadieh — University of Illinois Press — 2004
  65. 65BookIran Since the RevolutionElham Gheytanchi — 2000
  66. 66JournalLes Premières Femmes Au Gouvernement (France, 1936–1981)Christine Bard — May–June 2007
  67. 67NewsSwitzerland Marks 50 Years of Women VotingOlivera Zivkovic — 7 February 2021
  68. 68United Nations Press Release of a Meeting of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)United Nations — 14 January 2003
  69. 69Commemorating the Nineteenth Amendment: Women's Suffrage at Home and AbroadAlexandra Bro — Council on Foreign Relations — 27 August 2020
  70. 70BookRacism, Sexism, Power, And IdeologyColette Guillaumin — 1994
  71. 71BookHot Property: The Stakes and Claims of Literary OriginalityFrançoise Meltzer — 1995
  72. 72BookRape: The Misunderstood CrimeJulie A. Allison — 1995
  73. 73BookBanishing the Beast: Feminism, Sex and MoralityLucy Bland — I. B. Tauris — 2002
  74. 74JournalVoltairine de Cleyre: Sexual Slavery and Sexual Pleasure in the Nineteenth CenturyCatherine Helen Palczewski — 1995
  75. 75BookUnderstanding Violence Against WomenNancy A. Crowell et al. — 1997
  76. 76Simone De BeauvoirDebra Bergoffen — Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University — 16 August 2010
  77. 77BookModern Feminist Thought: From the Second Wave to 'Post-Feminism'Imelda Whelehan — Edinburgh University Press — 1995
  78. 78Hanisch, New Intro to 'The Personal Is Political' – Second Wave and BeyondCarol Hanisch — 1 January 2006
  79. 79BookFeminists, Islam, And Nation: Gender and the Making of Modern EgyptMargot Badran — Princeton University Press — 1996
  80. 80BookGlobal Feminisms Since 1945Bonnie G. Smith — Psychology Press — 2000
  81. 81Islamic Feminism Means Justice to Women
  82. 82BookTheoretical Perspectives on Gender and DevelopmentJane L. Parpart et al. — International Development Research Centre — 2000
  83. 83NewsBetty Friedan, Who Ignited Cause in 'Feminine Mystique,' Dies at 85Margalit Fox — 5 February 2006
  84. 84BookThe World Transformed: 1945 to the PresentMichael Hunt — Oxford University Press — 2016
  85. 85What Germaine Greer and The Female Eunuch Mean to Me26 January 2014
  86. 86Friday Essay: The Female Eunuch at 50, Germaine Greer's Fearless, Feminist Masterpiece9 October 2020
  87. 87BookGirl Zines: Making Media, Doing FeminismAlison Piepmeier — New York University Press — 2009
  88. 88The Riot Grrrl MovementSteve Feliciano — New York Public Library — 19 June 2013
  89. 89MagazineBecoming the Third WaveRebecca Walker — January 1992
  90. 90BookManifesta: Young Women, Feminism, And the FutureJennifer Baumgardner et al. — Farrar, Straus and Giroux — 2000
  91. 91BookNot My Mother's Sister: Generational Conflict and Third-Wave FeminismAstrid Henry — Indiana University Press — 2004
  92. 92BookThird Wave Feminism: A Critical ExplorationStacy Gillis et al. — Palgrave Macmillan — 2007
  93. 93BookBacklash: The Undeclared War Against WomenSusan Faludi — Vintage — 1992
  94. 94BookThird Wave Agenda: Being Feminist, Doing FeminismHeywood Leslie et al. — University of Minnesota Press — 1997
  95. 95BookIn a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's DevelopmentCarol Gilligan — Harvard University Press — 1993
  96. 96standpoint theory feminism
  97. 97BookThe Feminist Standpoint Theory Reader: Intellectual and Political ControversiesSandra Harding — Routledge — 2003
  98. 98Feminism: A Fourth Wave? The Political Studies Association (PSA)
  99. 99NewsThe Fourth Wave of Feminism: Meet the Rebel WomenKira Cochrane — 10 December 2013
  100. 100NewsThe Blogger and Author on the Life of Women OnlineDeborah Solomon — 13 November 2009
  101. 101Feminism's Fourth Wave Is the ShitlistAntonia Zerbisias — 16 September 2015
  102. 102Chamberlain (2017) p. 114–115Chamberlain — 2017
  103. 103MagazineTIME Person of the Year 2017: The Silence BreakersStephanie Zacharek et al. — 6 December 2017
  104. 104NewsMeToo movement named Time magazine's Person of the YearMolly Redden — 6 December 2017
  105. 105JournalToward a Decolonial FeminismMarìa Lugones — 2010
  106. 106JournalInherit My Heaven: Kalaallit Gender Relations, by Karla Jessen WilliamsonBarbara Bodenhorn — 2013
  107. 107BookRestructuring RelationsRauna Kuokkanen — 2019
  108. 108BookLacan and Postfeminism (Postmodern Encounters)Elizabeth Wright — Totem Books — 2000
  109. 109BookAn Introduction to Sociology: Feminist PerspectivesPamela Abbott et al. — Routledge — 2005
  110. 110BookApproaches to Political ThoughtTatiana Mateo–Gomez — Rowman & Littlefield — 2009
  111. 111BookNew Feminist Criticism: Art, Identity, ActionAmelia Jones — HarperCollins — 1994
  112. 112BookReaction and ResistanceDorothy E. Chunn — 2008
  113. 113BookLaughing with Medusa2008
  114. 114BookHe Said, She Says: An RSVP To the Male TextMica Howe et al. — Fairleigh Dickinson University Press — 2001
  115. 115BookEncounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum: Time, Space and the ArchiveGriselda Pollock — Routledge — 2007
  116. 116BookThe Matrixial BorderspaceEttinger, Bracha — University of Minnesota Press — 2006
  117. 117BookShaping the future of feminist psychology: Education, research, and practiceMary Brabeck et al. — 1997
  118. 118BookDifferential Aesthetics: Art Practices, Philosophy and Feminist UnderstandingsFlorence, Penny — Ashgate — 2001
  119. 119BookWomen Writing About WomenElaine Showalter — Croom Helm — 1979
  120. 120BookThe matrixial borderspaceBracha Ettinger — University of Minnesota Press — 2006
  121. 121BookThe Kristeva ReaderJulia Kristeva et al. — Columbia University Press — 1986
  122. 122JournalBeyond the 'Big Three': The Development of Feminist Theory into the 1990sMary Maynard — 1995
  123. 123LGBTIQ+ communities and the anti-rights pushback: 5 things to knowUN Women
  124. 124Feminist organizations and academic communities stand together for an inclusive feminismInkluderende feminisme
  125. 125BookFeminism and CitizenshipRian Voet — SAGE — 1998
  126. 126BookGender Roles: A Sociological PerspectiveLinda L. Lindsey — Routledge — 2015
  127. 127Kinds of FeminismRebecca West — University of Alabama in Huntsville
  128. 128BookWoman Suffrage and the Origins of Liberal Feminism in the United States, 1820–1920Suzanne M. Marilley — Harvard University Press — 1996
  129. 129Hvem Vi ErNorwegian Association for Women's Rights
  130. 130JournalA (Qualified) Defense of Liberal FeminismSusan Wendell — 1987
  131. 131JournalMaking a Difference: Feminism, post-modernism and the methodology of educational researchMorwenna Griffiths — 1995
  132. 132BookGenes, Women, EqualityMary Briody Mahowald — Oxford University Press — 1999
  133. 133JournalThe Rise of Neoliberal FeminismCatherine Rottenberg — 2014
  134. 134JournalUnderstanding Perceptions of Radical and Liberal Feminists: The Nuanced Roles of Warmth and CompetenceYiyue Zhang et al. — 2022
  135. 135Liberal FeminismMetaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University — 2018
  136. 136BookFeminism Is for Everybody: Passionate Politicsbell hooks — South End Press — 2000
  137. 137BookMaterialist Feminism: A Reader in Class, Difference, And Women's LivesRosemary Hennessy et al. — Routledge — 1997
  138. 138BookA Dictionary of Marxist ThoughtBottomore, T.B. — Wiley-Blackwell — 1991
  139. 139What Is Socialist Feminism?Barbara Ehrenreich — feministezine.com — 1976
  140. 140BookQuiet RumoursRoxanne Dunbar-Ortiz — AK Press — 2002
  141. 141BookRethinking Eco-Feminist PoliticsJanet Biehl — South End Press — 1991
  142. 142BookTransformations: Thinking Through FeminismAhmed, Sarta — Routledge — 2000
  143. 143BookIn Search of Our Mothers' Gardens: Womanist ProseWalker, Alice — Harcourt Brace Jovanovich — 1983
  144. 144BookBlack Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, And the Politics of EmpowermentP. Hill Collins — Routledge — 2000
  145. 145JournalWomanism: The Dynamics of the Contemporary Black Female Novel in EnglishChikwenye Okonjo Ogunyemi — 1985
  146. 146BookWomanism and African ConsciousnessKolawole, Mary Ebun Modupe — Africa World Press — 1997
  147. 147JournalKey Issues in Postcolonial Feminism: A Western PerspectiveChris Weedon — 2002
  148. 148BookDislocating Cultures: Identities, Traditions, And Third-World FeminismUma Narayan — Routledge — 1997
  149. 149BookMotherism: The Afrocentric Alternative to FeminismCatherine Obianuju Acholonu — Afa Publ. — 1995
  150. 150BookRe-Creating Ourselves: African Women & Critical TransformationsMolara Ogundipe-Leslie — Africa World Press — 1994
  151. 151JournalFeminism, Rebellious Women, And Cultural Boundaries: Rereading Flora Nwapa and Her CompatriotsObioma Nnaemeka — 1995
  152. 152BookAfricana Womanism: Reclaiming OurselvesClenora Hudson-Weems — Bedford Publishers — 1994
  153. 153BookGender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of IdentityJudith Butler — Routledge — 1999
  154. 154JournalDoing GenderCandace West et al. — 1987
  155. 155BookRadical DemocracySeyla Benhabib — 2013
  156. 156BookTheory and methods in political scienceVicky Randall — Palgrave Macmillan — 2010
  157. 157NewsThe Waves of Feminism, And Why People Keep Fighting over Them, ExplainedConstance Grady — 20 June 2018
  158. 158Why Transphobia Is a Feminist IssueNational Organization for Women — 8 September 2014
  159. 159NOW Celebrates International Transgender Day of VisibilityNational Organization for Women — 31 March 2021
  160. 160JournalEndorsement of Feminist Beliefs, Openness, and Mindful Acceptance as Predictors of Decreased TransphobiaLisa F. Platt et al. — 2021
  161. 161JournalPredicting transphobia among cisgender women and men: The roles of feminist identification and gender conformitySarah E. Conlin et al. — 2021
  162. 162JournalWho Thinks Outside the Gender Box? Feminism, Gender Self-Esteem, and Attitudes toward Trans PeopleSheila T. Brassel et al. — 2020
  163. 163JournalAre You Now or Have You Ever Been a TERF?Terry MacDonald — 16 February 2015
  164. 164JournalPhilosophical Problems with the Gender-Critical Feminist Argument Against Trans InclusionAleardo Zanghellini — 2020
  165. 165NewsA Backlash Against Gender Ideology Is Starting in Universities5 June 2021
  166. 166Woman Accused of Transphobia Wins Landmark Employment CaseTom Gordon — 10 June 2021
  167. 167NewsMaya Forstater: Woman Wins Tribunal Appeal over Transgender TweetsDoug Faulkner — 10 June 2021
  168. 168NewsThe Observer View on the Right to Free ExpressionObserver editorial — 27 June 2021
  169. 169'TERF' WarColleen Flaherty — 29 August 2018
  170. 170Why Is British Media So Transphobic?Edie Miller — 5 November 2018
  171. 171NewsA Feminist Glossary Because We Didn't All Major in Gender StudiesAlia Dastagir — 16 March 2017
  172. 172NewsOpinion How British Feminism Became Anti-TransSophie Lewis — 7 February 2019
  173. 173The Christian Right's New Strategy: Divide and Conquer the LGBT CommunityJeff Taylor — 23 October 2017
  174. 174BookThe F-Word: Feminism In Jeopardy – Women, Politics and the FutureRowe-Finkbeiner, Kristin — Seal Press — 2004
  175. 175JournalRiot GRRRL: Revolutions from withinJessica Rosenberg et al. — 1998
  176. 176BookEncyclopedia of Feminist TheoriesCode, Lorraine — Routledge — 2004
  177. 177BookBad Girls Go Everywhere: The Life of Helen Gurley BrownJennifer Scanlon — Oxford University Press — 2009
  178. 178BookFeminism in Popular CultureJoanne Hollows et al. — Berg Publishers — 2006
  179. 179Can Men Be Feminists Too? Half (48%) of Men in 15 Country Survey Seem to Think SoJulia Clark — 2014
  180. 180JournalSociological Research on Feminism and the Women's Movement: Ideology, Identity, And PracticeCatherine E. Harnois — October 2012
  181. 181News82 Percent of Americans Don't Consider Themselves Feminists, Poll ShowsCynthia Allum — 9 April 2015
  182. 182JournalRace, Ethnicity, Sexuality, and Women's Political Consciousness of GenderCatherine E. Harnois — 2015
  183. 183JournalIntersectional Masculinities and Gendered Political Consciousness: How do Race, Ethnicity and Sexuality Shape Men's Awareness of Gender Inequality and Support for Gender Activism?Catherine E. Harnois — 2017
  184. 184Attitudes to Gender in 2016 Britain – 8,000 Sample Study for Fawcett Society18 January 2016
  185. 185NewsOnly 7 per Cent of Britons Consider Themselves FeministsRadhika Sanghani — 15 January 2016
  186. 186BookWomen, Class, And the Feminist Imagination: A Socialist-Feminist ReaderKaren Tranberg Hansen et al. — Temple University Press — 1990
  187. 187BookDesiring Revolution: Second-Wave Feminism and the Rewriting of American Sexual Thought, 1920 to 1982Gerhard, Jane F. — Columbia University Press — 2001
  188. 188BookThe Sexual Liberals and the Attack On FeminismDorchen Leidholdt et al. — Pergamon Press — 1990
  189. 189BookPleasure and Danger: Exploring Female SexualityVance, Carole S. — Thorsons Publishers — 1989
  190. 190The Sex Wars, 1970s to 1980sAndrew McBride — 2008
  191. 191Journal"Shifting old-fashioned power dynamics"?: women's perspectives on the gender transformational capacity of the dating app, BumbleMargaret Young et al. — 2023
  192. 192BookSex Wars: Sexual Dissent and Political CultureDuggan, Lisa et al. — Routledge — 1995
  193. 193BookProstitution and FeminismMaggie O'Neill — Polity Press — 2001
  194. 194BookShame, Secrecy, And Silence: Study On Rape in PenangRohana Ariffin et al. — Women's Crisis Centre — 1997
  195. 195Mapping a global pandemic: review of current literature on rape, sexual assault and sexual harassment of womenL Bennet et al. — 2000
  196. 196JournalThe Epidemiology of Rape and Sexual Coercion in South Africa: An OverviewJewkes R, Abrahams N — 2002
  197. 197The Sole Function of the Clitoris Is Female Orgasm. Is That Why It's Ignored by Medical Science?Calla Wahlquist — 31 October 2020
  198. 198The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm by Anne Koedt6 January 2013
  199. 199BookFeminism & ScienceHarding, Sandra — Indiana University Press — 1989
  200. 200BookThe Politics of Women's BiologyHubbard, Ruth — Rutgers University Press — 1990
  201. 201BookQualitative Communication Research MethodsThomas R. Lindlof et al. — SAGE Publications — 2002
  202. 202NewsThe Beauty of BranesHolloway, Marguerite — Nature America — 26 September 2005
  203. 203BookWho Knows: From Quine To a Feminist EmpiricismHankinson Nelson, Lynn — Temple University Press — 1990
  204. 204JournalWhere is Social Structure in Personality Research?Lilia M. Cortina et al. — 2012
  205. 205BookFeminism, Science, And the Philosophy of ScienceHankinson Nelson, Lynn — Springer — 1997
  206. 206Feminist Epistemology and Philosophy of ScienceAnderson, Elizabeth — August 2000
  207. 207BookEncyclopedia of Feminist TheoriesLorraine Code — Taylor & Francis — 2000
  208. 208BookThe lenses of gender: transforming the debate on sexual inequalitySandra L. Bem — Yale University Press — 1993
  209. 209BookMyths of Gender: Biological Theories About Women and MenAnne Fausto-Sterling — BasicBooks — 1992
  210. 210BookDelusions of Gender: How Our Minds, Society, And Neurosexism Create DifferenceCordelia Fine — W. W. Norton & Company — 2010
  211. 211JournalFeminism in Psychology: Revolution or Evolution?Judith Worell — September 2000
  212. 212Psychology's Feminist Voices
  213. 213ThesisFeminist Contributions to Industrial Design and Design for Sustainability Theories and PracticesIsabel Prochner — Université de Montréal — March 2018
  214. 214JournalMade in Patriarchy: Toward a Feminist Analysis of Women and DesignCheryl Buckley — 1986
  215. 215BookDesign and Feminism: Re-Visioning Spaces, Places, and Everyday ThingsJudith Rothschild — 1999
  216. 216BookDRS2018: Design as a catalyst for changeIsabel Prochner et al. — 2018
  217. 217BookThe Feminist Bookstore Movement: Lesbian Antiracism and Feminist AccountabilityKristen Hogan — Duke University Press — 2016
  218. 218NewsWhat Is Feminist Art?Blake Gopnik — 22 April 2007
  219. 219NewsThe Feminist EvolutionHoban, Phoebe — December 2009
  220. 220JournalA feminist genealogy of posthuman aesthetics in the visual artsFrancesca Ferrando — 2016
  221. 221BookThe Feminist Companion to Literature in English: Women Writers from the Middle Ages to the PresentBlain, Virginia — Yale University Press — 1990
  222. 222JournalIt Starts With Me: Women Mediate Power Within Feminist ActivismCari L. Gulbrandsen et al. — 2012-08-01
  223. 223NewsPaperbacks: From Our Mothers' Libraries: Women Who Created the NovelSandra M. Gilbert — 4 May 1986
  224. 225NewsA Room of One’s Own Book, Summary, Themes, & Shakespeare’s Sister Britannica
  225. 226BookThe Bloomsbury Guide to Women's LiteraturePrentice Hall — 1992
  226. 227BookEarly Modern Women's WritingPaul Salzman — Oxford University Press — 2000
  227. 228JournalC.L. Moore and the Conventions of Women's Science FictionSusan Gubar — 1980-03-01
  228. 229BookThe Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and FantasyHelford, Elyce Rae — Greenwood Press — 2005
  229. 230JournalUsing Science Fiction to Teach the Psychology of Sex and GenderHilary M. Lips — 1990
  230. 231Hrotsvitha of Gandersheim (C. 935–1001) | Encyclopedia.com
  231. 232I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings: Angelou's Quest to Truth and PowerMahvish Shah — 2018
  232. 233A Change of WorldPoetry Foundation — 29 November 2018
  233. 234JournalRe-Viewing HrotsvitSue-Ellen Case — December 1983
  234. 235Hrotsvitha of Gandersheim – The Most Remarkable Women of Her TimeHarald Sack — 6 February 2019
  235. 236JournalHroswitha of Gandersheim and the Destiny of WomenA. Daniel Frankforter — 1979
  236. 237Hrotsvitha Vs. GobnaitEmily McFarlan Miller — 20 March 2019
  237. 238BookRockin' the Boat: Mass Music & Mass MovementsCynthia Lont — South End Press — 1992
  238. 239JournalGirls with Guitars and Other Strange StoriesJudith A. Peraino — 2001
  239. 240VideoRadical HarmoniesDee Mosbacher — Woman Vision — 2002
  240. 241BookMusicology: The Key ConceptsDavid Beard et al. — Routledge — 2005
  241. 242NewsWhy the Male Domination of Classical Music Might Be Coming to an EndJessica Duchen — 28 February 2015
  242. 243Sounding Off: Why So Few Women in Audio?Rosina Ncube — September 2013
  243. 244Women's Activism NYC
  244. 245Remembering Films by Faten Hamama Championing Women's Rights Egyptian Streets27 May 2019
  245. 246BookCinema Studies – The Key ConceptsSusan Hayward — Routledge — 2006
  246. 247BookIssues in Feminist Film CriticismPatricia Brett Erens — Wiley & Sons — 1991
  247. 248BookWomen's Companion to International FilmVirago — 1990
  248. 249BookRegard et espace-de-bord matrixiels: essais psychanalytiques sur le féminin et le travail de l'artBracha Ettinger et al. — Lettre volée — 1999
  249. 250BookMatrixial Subjectivity, Aesthetics, Ethics: Volume 1 1990-2000Bracha Ettinger — Palgrave Macmillan UK — 2020
  250. 251BookBracha L. Ettinger: and my heart wound-spaceBracha Ettinger et al. — Wild Pansy Press — 2015
  251. 252BookUnderstanding moviesLouis D. Giannetti — Prentice Hall — 1996
  252. 253The Brutal Math of Gender Inequality in HollywoodDerek Thompson — 11 January 2018
  253. 254Assessing the Gender Gap in the Film IndustryNamSor Blog — 16 April 2014
  254. 255BookZetkin. Femminista Senza FrontiereBadia, Gilbert — University of Michigan. — 1994
  255. 256BookThe Radical Women Manifesto: Socialist Feminist Theory, Program and Organizational StructureRed Letter Press — 2001
  256. 257BookSpeeches & Articles, 1936–1938Ibárruri, Dolores — University of Michigan — 1938
  257. 258Internment – Women Internees 1916–1973John McGuffin — 1973
  258. 259Countess Constance De Markievicz
  259. 260Dorothea Findlater – One Hundred Years OnTurtle Bunbury
  260. 261BookMussolini: En Studie I MaktGöran Hägg — Norstedt — 2008
  261. 262BookWomen, Gender and Fascism in Europe, 1919–45Kevin Passmore — Rutgers Univ. Press — 2003
  262. 263BookWorld Fascism: A Historical EncyclopediaCyprian Blamires — ABC-CLIO — 2006
  263. 264BookA History of Women in the WestGeorges Duby et al. — Belknap Press of Harvard University Press — 1994
  264. 265BookThe Civil Rights MovementPeter Levy — Greenwood Press — 1998
  265. 266BookEncyclopedia of Feminist TheoriesLorraine Code — Taylor & Francis — 2000
  266. 267BookFeminist Theorybell hooks — 3 October 2014
  267. 268JournalMeeting at the Watchtower: Eldridge Cleaver, James Baldwin's No Name in the Street, and Racializing Homophobic VernacularZachary Manditch-Prottas — 2019
  268. 269BookSeparate Roads to Feminism: Black, Chicana, And White Feminist Movements in America's Second WaveBenita Roth — Cambridge University Press — 2004
  269. 270BookFeminism and Antiracism: International Struggles for JusticeFrance Winddance Twine et al. — NYU Press — 2001
  270. 271BookAvailable Means: An Anthology Of Women'S Rhetoric(s)University of Pittsburgh Press — 12 July 2001
  271. 272BookGender Matters in Global PoliticsV. Spike Peterson — Routledge — 2014
  272. 273BookGender Matters in Global PoliticsJuanita Elias et al. — Routledge — 2014
  273. 274BookWomen's Rights: A Human Rights Quarterly ReaderLockwood, Bert B. — The Johns Hopkins University Press — 2006
  274. 275From Suffrage to Women's Liberation: Feminism in Twentieth Century AmericaJo Freeman
  275. 276BookThe Best Kept Secret: Sexual Abuse of ChildrenFlorence Rush — Prentice-Hall — 1988
  276. 277NewsStatement of Purpose29 October 1966
  277. 278BookThe Second ShiftHochschild, Arlie Russell — Penguin Books — 2003
  278. 279BookThe Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and Home Becomes WorkHochschild, Arlie Russell — Henry Holt & Co. — 2001
  279. 280NewsThe Mama Lion at the GateYoung, Cathy — 12 June 2000
  280. 281JournalA Note on the Division of Labor by SexJudith K. Brown — October 1970
  281. 282Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women New York, 18 December 1979Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
  282. 283BookBlack's Law DictionaryThomson Reuters — 2014
  283. 284BookPostmodern Legal Movements: Law and Jurisprudence at Century's EndGary Minda — NYU Press — 1995
  284. 285BookThe Handbook of Nonsexist WritingCasey Miller et al. — Harper & Row — 1988
  285. 286BookThe Handbook of English LinguisticsBlackwell — 2006
  286. 287Word of the Year 2017
  287. 288BookThe Feminine Spirit: Recapturing the Heart of ScriptureBundesen, Lynne — Jossey-Bass — 30 March 2007
  288. 289JournalEgalitarian Pioneers: Betty Friedan or Catherine Booth?Haddad, Mimi — 2006
  289. 290BookFeminist Philosophy of Religion: Critical ReadingsAnderson, Pamela Sue — Routledge — 2004
  290. 291Islamic Feminism: What's in a Name?Badran, Margot — 17–23 January 2002
  291. 292II International Congress on Islamic FeminismCatalonian Islamic Board — feminismeislamic.org — 24–27 October 2008
  292. 293BookBuddhism After Patriarchy: A Feminist History, Analysis, And Reconstruction of BuddhismRita M. Gross — State University of New York Press — 1992
  293. 294BookHistory of Jewish PhilosophyPlaskow, Judith — Routledge — 2003
  294. 295Why Are There so Many Jewish Feminists?Marjorie Ingall — 18 November 2005
  295. 296BookWoe to the women-- the Bible tells me so: the Bible, female sexuality & the lawAnnie Laurie Gaylor — Freedom From Religion Foundation — 2004
  296. 297BookThe caged virgin: a Muslim woman's cry for reasonAyaan Hirsi Ali et al. — Pocket — 2007
  297. 298BookWho cooked the Last Supper? the women's history of the worldRosalind Miles — Three Rivers Press — 2001
  298. 299Encyclopedia of Sex and GenderMacmillan Reference — 2007
  299. 300BookThe Sexual ContractCarole Pateman — John Wiley & Sons — 25 March 2014
  300. 301BookRoutledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy: Entries PZTickner, Ann J. — Taylor & Francis — 2001
  301. 302BookLesbian Ethics: Toward New ValueSarah Lucia Hoagland — Institute of Lesbian Studies — 1988
  302. 303BookThe second stage: with a new introductionBetty Friedan — Harvard University Press — 1998
  303. 304BookHuman sexuality: an encyclopediaGarland — 1994
  304. 305Echols (1989) p. p. 78 & n. 124 ("124. Interview with Cindy Cisler".) and see p. 119Echols — 1989
  305. 306BookFeminist Thought: A More Comprehensive IntroductionRosemarie Putnam Tong — Westview Press — 1998
  306. 307BookMasculinity Studies and Feminist TheoryJudith Kegan Gardiner — Columbia University Press — 2002
  307. 308JournalFathers' Rights and Feminism: The Maternal Presumption RevisitedRena K. Uviller — 1978
  308. 309JournalUnwed Fathers' Rights, Adoption, And Sex Equality: Gender-Neutrality And the Perpetuation of PatriarchyMary Shanley — January 1995
  309. 310JournalFeminism for Men: Legal Ideology and the Construction of MalenessNancy Levit — 1996
  310. 311BookMen doing feminismRoutledge — 1998
  311. 312BookThe Womanist readerLayli Phillips — CRC Press — 2006
  312. 313BookMen in feminismAlice A. Jardine et al. — Routledge — 1989
  313. 314JournalDisavowing Social Identities: What it Means when Women Say, 'I'm not a Feminist, but …'Alyssa N. Zucker — 2004
  314. 315JournalThe Relationship Between Gender Social Identity and Support for FeminismShawn Meghan Burn et al. — 2000
  315. 316JournalNew wave or second stage? Attitudes of college women toward feminismClaire M. Renzetti — 1987
  316. 317JournalThe Framing of Feminists and Feminism in News and Public Affairs Programs in U.S. Electronic MediaRebecca Ann Lind et al. — 2002
  317. 318JournalEffects of Stereotypes About Feminists on Feminist Self-IdentificationRobin E. Roy et al. — 2007
  318. 319JournalDisarming the Threat to Feminist IdentificationBonnie Moradi et al. — 2012
  319. 320BookMen Engaging Feminisms: Pro-Feminism, Backlashes and SchoolingBob Lingard et al. — Open University Press — 1999
  320. 321BookAgainst the Tide: Pro-Feminist Men in the United States, 1776–1990: A Documentary HistoryMichael S. Kimmel et al. — Beacon Press — 1992
  321. 322BookWho Stole Feminism? How Women Have Betrayed WomenChristina Hoff Sommers — Simon & Schuster — 1995
  322. 323JournalThe Misandry Myth: An Inaccurate Stereotype About Feminists' Attitudes Toward MenAífe Hopkins-Doyle et al. — 2024
  323. 324BookThe Oxford English DictionaryJohn A. Simpson et al. — Clarendon Press Oxford University Press — 1989
  324. 325BookMen and Masculinities a Social, Cultural, and Historical EncyclopediaMichael Kimmel — ABC-CLIO — 2004
  325. 326BookThe politically incorrect guide to women, sex, and feminismCarrie Lukas — Regnery Publishing — 2006
  326. 327BookThe feminist mystique mistake: the radical impact of feminism on church and cultureMary Kassian — Crossway Books — 2005
  327. 328BookThe Power of the Positive WomanPhyllis Schlafly — Arlington House — 1977
  328. 329NewsThe Trouble with FeminismPaul Gottfried — Lew Rockwell — 21 April 2001
  329. 330BookIslamism: a documentary and reference guideYusuf al-Qaradawi — Greenwood Press — 2008
  330. 331BookProfessing feminism: education and indoctrination in women's studiesDaphne Patai — Lexington Books — 2003
  331. 332JournalReview: Reviewed Work: Antifeminism in the Academy by Vévé Clark, Shirley Nelson Garner, Margaret Higonnet, Ketu H. KatrakMary Ann Danowitz Sagaria — January 1999
  332. 333JournalFeminism or Humanism?Tatiana Doran et al. — June 1998
  333. 334Why Humanism and Feminism Go Hand in HandCordelia Tucker O'Sullivan — 7 March 2015
  334. 335BookThe Birth of Feminism: Woman As Intellect in Renaissance Italy and EnglandSarah Gwyneth Ross — Harvard University Press — 2009