English Civil War
In 1642, King Charles I entered the House of Commons with four hundred soldiers to arrest five members on a charge of treason. The members had learned he was coming and escaped, leaving him to turn more people against his own cause. This failed attempt marked the end of indecision about which side to support or what action to take. The conflict began less than forty years after Queen Elizabeth I died, when her successor James VI of Scotland became James I of England. James had been accustomed to Scotland's weak parliamentary tradition since assuming control of the Scottish government in 1583. He found himself affronted by the constraints English Parliament placed on him in exchange for money. His personal extravagance meant he was perennially short of funds, forcing him to resort to extra-parliamentary sources of income. Increasing inflation during this period meant that even though Parliament granted the King the same nominal value of subsidy, the income was actually worth less. By the 17th century, Parliament's tax-raising powers derived from the fact that the gentry was the only stratum of society able to collect and remit meaningful forms of taxation at the local level. If the king wanted smooth revenue collection, he needed the gentry's cooperation. For all of the Crown's legal authority, its resources were limited to the extent that if the gentry refused to collect taxes, the Crown lacked practical means to compel them. Charles followed his father's dream of uniting the kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland into a single kingdom. Many English Parliamentarians feared such a move might destroy old English traditions binding the monarchy. Charles believed kings were little gods on Earth chosen by God to rule according to the Divine Right of Kings. This belief justified many of his actions but also fueled deep suspicion among Parliamentarians.
Many officers and veteran soldiers had fought in European wars, notably the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch which began in 1568. They also participated in earlier phases of the Thirty Years' War which started in 1618 and concluded in 1648. The war reached unprecedented scale for England with one hundred twenty thousand to one hundred fifty thousand soldiers in the field during campaign seasons. The main battle tactic became known as pike and shot infantry where two sides lined up opposite each other. Infantry brigades of musketeers stood in the center carrying matchlock muskets accurate only at ranges up to three hundred yards. Musketeers assembled three rows deep with the first kneeling, second crouching, and third standing. At times troops divided into two groups allowing one to reload while the other fired. Among the musketeers were pike men carrying pikes four to five feet long whose purpose was protecting musketeers from cavalry charges. Positioned on each side of the infantry were cavalry units with a right wing led by the lieutenant-general and left by the commissary general. Their main aim was routing opponents' cavalry then turning to overpower their infantry. Royalist cavaliers skill and speed on horseback led to many early victories. Prince Rupert commanding the king's cavalry used tactics learned fighting in the Dutch army where cavalry charged full speed firing pistols just before impact. However Oliver Cromwell introduced the more disciplined New Model Army where disciplined pike men would stand ground causing devastating effects. Royalist cavalry tended to chase down individual targets after initial charge leaving forces scattered and tired whereas Cromwell's cavalry moved slower but better disciplined. Trained to operate as single unit it went on to win many decisive victories.
The First English Civil War ended in June 1646 with Royalist defeat and the king in custody. Charles raised his royal standard at Nottingham on the 22nd of August 1642 with about two thousand cavalry and small number of Yorkshire infantrymen. He moved westerly first to Stafford then Shrewsbury where support seemed particularly strong in Severn valley area and North Wales. Parliamentarians appointed Robert Devereux third Earl of Essex commander three days after voting to raise ten thousand volunteers on the 9th of June. By mid-September Essex forces grew to twenty-one thousand infantry and four thousand two hundred cavalry and dragoons. The first major skirmish occurred when troop of about one thousand Royalist cavalry under Prince Rupert defeated Parliamentary detachment under Colonel John Brown at Battle of Powick Bridge crossing River Teme close to Worcester. First pitched battle at Edgehill on the 23rd of October proved inconclusive though both sides claimed victory. Second field action stand-off at Turnham Green saw Charles forced to withdraw to Oxford which served base for rest of war. In 1645 Parliament passed Self-denying Ordinance reorganizing main forces into New Model Army under Thomas Fairfax with Cromwell as second-in-command. Two decisive engagements Battle of Naseby on the 14th of June and Battle of Langport on the 10th of July effectively destroyed Charles's armies. Charles sought shelter with Presbyterian Scottish army at Southwell in Nottinghamshire in May 1646 before being handed over to English Parliament. Second Civil War began in summer 1648 with Royalist uprisings throughout England and Scottish invasion. Forces loyal to Parliament put down most uprisings after little more than skirmish but rebellions in Kent Essex Cumberland Wales and Scottish invasion involved pitched battles. Cromwell engaged Scots at Battle of Preston from 17 to the 19th of August resulting in victory over Royalists and Scots commanded by Hamilton marking end of Second Civil War. Third Civil War started when Charles II landed in Scotland at Garmouth in Morayshire on the 23rd of June 1650. Cromwell defeated them at Battle of Dunbar on the 3rd of September then took Edinburgh. By end of year his army occupied much southern Scotland. Cromwell followed Charles into England defeating him at Worcester on the 3rd of September 1651 ending the conflict.
Ireland had undergone continual war since rebellion of 1641 with most island controlled by Irish Confederates. Increasingly threatened by armies of English Parliament after Charles I arrest in 1648 Confederates signed treaty alliance with English Royalists. Joint Royalist and Confederate forces under James Butler Duke of Ormonde tried eliminating Parliamentary army holding Dublin by laying siege in 1649 but opponents routed them at Battle of Rathmines on the 2nd of August 1649. Admiral Robert Blake former Member of Parliament blockaded Prince Rupert's fleet in Kinsale enabling Oliver Cromwell land at Dublin on the 15th of August 1649 with army to quell Royalist alliance. After Siege of Drogheda massacre nearly three thousand five hundred people including two thousand seven hundred Royalist soldiers seven hundred others civilians prisoners Catholic priests became one historical memories driving Irish-English and Catholic-Protestant strife during last three centuries. Parliamentarian conquest ground on four years until 1653 when last Irish Confederate and Royalist troops surrendered. Execution of Charles I altered dynamics Civil War in Scotland which raged between Royalists and Covenanters since 1644. By 1649 struggle left Royalists there disarray their erstwhile leader James Graham Marquess of Montrose gone into exile. When Scottish Covenanters offered crown Scotland Charles abandoned Montrose to enemies. Montrose who raised mercenary force Norway landed could not abandon fight. He did not succeed raising many Highland clans and Covenanters defeated his army at Battle of Carbisdale Ross-shire on the 27th of April 1650. Victors captured Montrose shortly afterwards took him Edinburgh. On the 20th of May Scottish Parliament sentenced him death had him hanged next day. Charles II signed 1638 National Covenant and 1643 Solemn League and Covenant shortly after coming ashore becoming greatest threat facing new English republic.
Figures for casualties during this period are unreliable though some attempt made provide rough estimates. In England conservative estimate roughly one hundred thousand people died from war-related disease during three civil wars plus at least sixty thousand in Scotland. Historical records count eighty-four thousand eight hundred thirty combat dead from wars themselves counting accidents two Bishops' Wars conservative estimate one hundred ninety thousand dead out total population about five million. From 1638 to 1651 from pre-war population approximately six million five million England Wales one million Scotland some twenty-five percent all adult males Britain served military at some point. Deaths amounted to three point seven percent total population England and six percent Scotland. Most combat deaths occurred minor skirmishes rather large pitched battles. There were total six hundred forty-five engagements throughout wars five hundred eighty-eight involved fewer than two hundred fifty casualties total accounting thirty-nine thousand eight hundred thirty fatalities average count less than sixty-eight nearly half conflict's combat deaths. Only nine major pitched battles at least one thousand fatalities which total accounted fifteen percent casualties. Anecdotal example found posthumously published writing History of Myddle by Shropshire man Richard Gough lived 1635, 1723 wrote about men rural home parish joined Royalist forces stating out three townships Myddle Marton Newton went no less than twenty men number thirteen killed wars. Figures for Scotland less reliable treated caution. Casualties include deaths prisoners-of-war conditions accelerated deaths estimates ten thousand prisoners not surviving returning home eight thousand captured during immediately after Battle Worcester deported New England Bermuda West Indies work landowners indentured labourers. Best estimate provided William Petty father English demography estimated one hundred twelve thousand Protestants five hundred four thousand Catholics killed plague war famine giving estimated total six hundred sixteen thousand dead out pre-war population about one and a half million. These figures indicate England suffered four percent loss population Scotland loss six percent while Ireland suffered loss forty-one percent population.
After execution Charles I in January 1649 Commonwealth of England established republican government ruling England later all Scotland Ireland from 1649 to 1653 and 1659 to 1660. Between two periods due in-fighting various factions Parliament Oliver Cromwell ruled Protectorate Lord Protector effectively military dictator until death 1658. On Oliver Cromwell's death son Richard became Lord Protector but Army little confidence him. After seven months Army removed Richard May 1659 re-installed Rump. Military force shortly afterward dissolved this well. After second dissolution Rump October 1659 prospect total descent anarchy loomed as Army pretense unity dissolved into factions. Into atmosphere General George Monck Governor Scotland under Cromwells marched south army Scotland. On the 4th of April 1660 Declaration Breda Charles II made known conditions acceptance Crown England. Monck organized Convention Parliament met first time the 25th of April 1660. On the 8th of May 1660 declared Charles II reigned lawful monarch since execution Charles I January 1649. Charles returned exile the 23rd of May 1660 populace London acclaimed king the 29th of May 1660. Coronation took place Westminster Abbey the 23rd of April 1661 events known Restoration. Although monarchy restored still consent Parliament civil wars effectively set England Scotland course parliamentary monarchy form government.
The outcome of the civil wars effectively set England and Scotland on course towards a parliamentary monarchy form of government. In the wake of victory many ideals idealists became sidelined republican government Commonwealth ruled England later all Scotland Ireland from 1649 to 1653 and 1659 to 1660. Between two periods Oliver Cromwell ruled Protectorate Lord Protector until death 1658. After his death son Richard became Lord Protector but Army little confidence him removed after seven months. May 1659 re-installed Rump dissolved shortly afterward October 1659 prospect total descent anarchy loomed as Army pretense unity dissolved into factions. General George Monck Governor Scotland under Cromwells marched south army Scotland Declaration Breda made conditions acceptance Crown England. Convention Parliament met first time the 25th of April 1660 declared Charles II reigned lawful monarch since execution January 1649. Charles returned exile the 23rd of May 1660 populace London acclaimed king the 29th of May 1660 coronation Westminster Abbey the 23rd of April 1661 events known Restoration. Although monarchy restored still consent Parliament civil wars effectively set England Scotland course parliamentary monarchy form government future Kingdom Great Britain formed 1707 Acts Union managed forestall kind revolution typical European republican movements generally resulted total abolition their.
Common questions
When did the English Civil War begin and end?
The First English Civil War began on the 22nd of August 1642 when King Charles I raised his royal standard at Nottingham. The conflict concluded with the Battle of Worcester on the 3rd of September 1651, which ended the Third Civil War.
Who were the main commanders in the English Civil War?
King Charles I commanded the Royalist forces while Parliament appointed Robert Devereux third Earl of Essex as commander initially. Oliver Cromwell later led the disciplined New Model Army alongside Thomas Fairfax to defeat the Royalists.
How many people died during the English Civil War period from 1642 to 1651?
Conservative estimates indicate roughly one hundred thousand people died from war-related disease in England and at least sixty thousand in Scotland. Total casualties including combat deaths and prisoners amount to approximately three point seven percent of the total population in England and six percent in Scotland.
What was the outcome of the execution of Charles I in January 1649?
The execution of Charles I established the Commonwealth of England as a republican government ruling from 1649 to 1653 and 1659 to 1660. It also altered dynamics in Scotland where Royalists and Covenanters raged between 1644 and 1650 before the Restoration.
When did the English Civil War end and when was the monarchy restored?
The Third Civil War ended on the 3rd of September 1651 with the Battle of Worcester. The monarchy was restored when Charles II returned to London on the 29th of May 1660 following his Declaration Breda signed on the 4th of April 1660.