Thomas Aquinas

• 1. The Noble Prisoner

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  In the year 1244, a young man named Thomas Aquinas sat bound in the stone tower of Monte San Giovanni Campano. He was nineteen years old and dressed in the rough habit of a Dominican friar. His family had seized him while he drank from a spring on his way to Rome. They intended to keep him there for almost one full year to stop him from joining their order. The castle walls held him tight against his will. His mother Theodora Galluccio Countess of Teano ordered this imprisonment to force him into a different life. She wanted him to become an abbot at Monte Cassino instead of a wandering preacher. Her brothers-in-law Sinibald and Landulf VI of Aquino controlled the region with military power. They believed a younger son should follow the uncle into the abbacy rather than serve God as a mendicant. Thomas spent these months tutoring his sisters inside the dark cell. He communicated secretly with members of the Dominican Order through hidden messages. Family members grew desperate to break his resolve. Two of his brothers hired a prostitute to seduce him. They thought sexual temptation might dissuade him from a life of celibacy. Thomas drove her away wielding a burning log. He inscribed a cross onto the wall with that fire. He fell into a mystical ecstasy during this trial. Two angels appeared to him as he slept. They told him they girded him by the command of God with a girdle of chastity. This celestial gift would never be imperilled again. He wore this girdle until the end of his life. It now rests in Chieri near Turin.

• 2. The Dumb Ox And Paris

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  Thomas arrived at the University of Paris in 1245 to study under Albertus Magnus. The scholar held the Chair of Theology at the College of St James. Albertus later sent Thomas to Cologne in 1248 when he moved to teach there. Thomas followed him despite an offer from Pope Innocent IV to appoint him abbot of Monte Cassino. Albertus named the quiet student magister studentium. Some fellow students mocked him for speaking so little. They called him the dumb ox. Albertus predicted that this ox would one day produce such a bellowing it would be heard throughout the world. Thomas taught in Cologne as an apprentice professor. He instructed students on books of the Old Testament. He wrote Expositio super Isaiam ad litteram and Postilla super Ieremiam. His commentary on Lamentations was titled Postilla super Threnos. In 1252 he returned to Paris to earn a master degree in theology. He lectured on the Bible as an apprentice professor. Upon becoming a baccalaureus Sententiarum he spent three years commenting on Peter Lombard's Sentences. This massive work became known as Scriptum super libros Sententiarium. He also composed De ente et essentia for his fellow Dominicans in Paris. Early 1256 marked his appointment as regent master in theology at Paris. One of his first works upon assuming office was Contra impugnantes Dei cultum et religionem. This text defended mendicant orders against attacks by William of Saint-Amour. During his tenure from 1256 to 1259 he wrote numerous other texts. These included Quaestiones Disputatae de Veritate containing twenty-nine disputed questions. He also produced Quaestiones quodlibetales responding to academic audience queries. Thomas worked alongside saint Bonaventure of Bagnoregio between 1252 and 1257. They disagreed about faith versus natural reason. Bonaventure claimed theology begins where philosophy ends in mystery. Thomas argued they grew together in a hermeneutic circle. Bonaventure joked that Thomas contaminated pure wine with water. Thomas replied that even the miracle at Cana transformed water into wine.

• 3. The Summa And The Synthesis

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  Thomas completed his first regency at the studium generale in 1259 before leaving Paris. He returned to Naples as general preacher on the 29th of September 1260. In September 1261 he moved to Orvieto as conventual lector. There he finished the Summa contra Gentiles and wrote the Catena aurea. He produced works for Pope Urban IV including liturgy for Corpus Christi. Some hymns like Pange lingua remain sung today. February 1265 saw Pope Clement IV summon him to Rome as papal theologian. That same year he taught at Santa Sabina founded in 1222. This new studium provinciale became an experiment for advanced education within the order. Tolomeo da Lucca noted Thomas taught full philosophical subjects there. While at Santa Sabina he began his most famous work Summa Theologiae. He conceived it specifically suited to beginner students. He stated his intention was to convey Christian religion fittingly to instruction of beginners. He also wrote Compendium Theologiae and Responsio ad fr. Ioannem Vercellensem de articulis 108 sumptis ex opere Petri de Tarentasia. As head of the studium he conducted disputations on God's power compiled into De potentia. Nicholas Brunacci studied under him at both Santa Sabina and Paris. November 1268 found him leaving Viterbo with secretary Reginald of Piperno for Paris. His departure marked the end of his time at Santa Sabina until 1268. The pedagogical activities later divided between two campuses. A new convent at Santa Maria sopra Minerva grew rapidly after receiving Dominicans friars in 1275. In 1288 theology component relocated from Santa Sabina to Santa Maria sopra Minerva. This institution transformed into College of Saint Thomas in the 16th century. It moved again in the 20th century to become Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas.

• 4. The Vision And The End

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  In 1272 Thomas left University of Paris to establish a studium generale in Naples. He chose this location freely and staffed it as he pleased. He worked on third part of Summa while giving lectures on religious topics. Every day during Lent of 1273 he preached to people of Naples. These sermons on Ten Commandments Creed Our Father and Hail Mary were very popular. Tradition attributes levitation abilities to him. G.K. Chesterton wrote about well-attested cases of levitation in ecstasy. Blessed Virgin appeared to him comforting him with news that he would never be Bishop. On one occasion in 1273 at Dominican convent of Naples chapel of Saint Nicholas he lingered after Matins. Sacristan Domenic of Caserta said he saw him levitating in prayer before crucified Christ icon. Christ reportedly asked what reward he wanted for his labor. Thomas replied Nothing but you Lord. Another mystical experience occurred on the 6th of December 1273 while celebrating mass. He experienced an unusually long ecstasy because of what he saw. He abandoned routine and refused to dictate to socius Reginald of Piperno. When Reginald begged him to return to work Thomas answered all written words seemed like straw to him. Summa Theologica remained uncompleted as result. Some believe supernatural experience triggered change in behavior. After taking bed he recovered some strength. In 1274 Pope Gregory X summoned him to attend Second Council of Lyon opening the 1st of May 1274. Council aimed to heal Great Schism of 1054 dividing Catholic Church from Eastern Orthodox Church. On way riding donkey along Appian Way he struck head on fallen tree branch. He became seriously ill again and escorted quickly to Monte Cassino to convalesce. After resting briefly he set out again stopping at Cistercian Fossanova Abbey after falling ill. Monks nursed him several days. As receiving last rites he prayed I have written much about holy Body and sacraments in faith of Christ. He died the 7th of March 1274 while giving commentary on Song of Songs. Proposed cause was chronic subdural hematoma from blow weeks before death.

• 5. Condemnation And Canonization

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  In 1277 Étienne Tempier bishop of Paris issued another extensive condemnation list containing 219 propositions. Twenty Thomistic propositions violated omnipotence of God according to bishop determination. This inclusion damaged Thomas reputation for many years. By 1300s his theology began rise to prestige. Dante Alighieri saw glorified soul of Thomas in Heaven of Sun within Divine Comedy completed around 1320. Dante asserts Thomas died by poisoning ordered by Charles of Anjou. Giovanni Villani cites this belief while Anonimo Fiorentino describes crime motive. Historian Ludovico Antonio Muratori reproduces account made by friend giving no hint of foul play. When devil advocate objected lack of miracles one cardinal answered there are as many miracles articles in Summa. Fifty years after death on the 18th of July 1323 Pope John XXII seated in Avignon pronounced Thomas saint. His remains translated from Fossanova to Church of Jacobins in Toulouse France the 28th of January 1369. Between 1789 and 1974 they held in Basilica of Saint-Sernin. In 1974 returned to Church of Jacobins where remained ever since. Feast day inserted General Roman Calendar celebration the 7th of March day of death. Since date commonly falls within Lent 1969 revision moved memorial to the 28th of January translation date. Catholic Church honors Thomas as saint regarding him model teacher priesthood study. Modern times under papal directives study works long used core required program ordination seeking priests deacons religious formation sacred disciplines students philosophy theology church history liturgy canon law Code Canon Law Can 252 §3.

• 6. Modern Echoes And Critiques

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  Some modern ethicists within Catholic Church notably Alasdair MacIntyre commented possible use Thomas virtue ethics avoiding utilitarianism Kantian sense duty called deontology. Philippa Foot outside church also recently commented similar lines. Through work twentieth-century philosophers such Elizabeth Anscombe especially book Intention Thomas principle double effect specifically theory intentional activity generally influential. Cognitive neuroscientist Walter Freeman proposed Thomism philosophical system explaining cognition most compatible with neurodynamics. Henry Adams Mont Saint Michel Chartres ends culminating chapter on Thomas calling artist constructing extensive analogy design Church Intellectual gothic cathedrals period. Erwin Panofsky later echoed views Gothic Architecture Scholasticism published 1951. Thomas aesthetic theories concept claritas deeply influenced literary practice modernist writer James Joyce. Joyce extolled Thomas second only Aristotle among Western philosophers. References appear Elementa philosophiae ad mentem D Thomae Aquatis doctoris angelici 1898 Girolamo Maria Mancini professor theology Collegium Divi Thomae de Urbe. Example Mancini Elementa referred Portrait Artist Young Man influence found works Italian semiotician Umberto Eco wrote essay aesthetic ideas Thomas published 1956 republished 1988 revised edition. 20th century philosopher Bertrand Russell criticized philosophy stating He does not like Platonic Socrates set out follow wherever argument may lead. He is not engaged inquiry result impossible know advance. Before begins philosophizing already knows truth declared Catholic faith. If find apparently rational arguments parts faith so much better if cannot need fall back revelation. Finding arguments conclusion given advance not philosophy special pleading. Cannot feel deserves put level best philosophers Greece modern times A History Western Philosophy Ch 34 St Thomas Aquinas Allen Unwin London England Simon Schuster New York 1946 pp 484, .