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— CH. 1 · INTRODUCTION —

Islam

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8 sections

  • Islam rests on a single sentence spoken aloud before witnesses. "I testify that there is no deity except God and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God." That oath, the shahada, is the doorway into a faith of an estimated 2 billion people, the world's second-largest religious population after Christians. The word itself comes from the Arabic root S-L-M, a cluster of meanings tied to submission, safeness, and peace. In a religious sense, it points to total surrender to the will of God. A Muslim, then, is one who surrenders. How does a religion that began in a cave near Mecca around 610 CE come to claim a quarter of all people alive? Why does it splinter into Sunni and Shia, into mystics and literalists, over a question of who should lead? And why do Muslims pray five times a day toward a single building in a desert city? The answers run from the verbatim word believed to be God's, to the etiquette of birth and burial, to empires that rose on gunpowder and fell after a world war.

  • Tawhid, the oneness of God, is the central concept around which everything else turns. God is held to be incomparable and without any multiplicity of persons, unlike the Christian Trinity. To associate partners with God, or to give God's attributes to others, is shirk, treated as idolatry. Muslims therefore attribute no form to God and are not iconodules. Ar-Rahman, "The Entirely Merciful," and Ar-Rahim, "The Especially Merciful," are the two most common names invoked at the start of most chapters of the Quran. Creation itself is described by a single command, "Be, and it is," and the stated purpose of existence is to worship God. There are no intermediaries, no clergy standing between a person and God. The word Allah carries no plural and no gender, and it is used by Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews as well, while ilah refers to a deity in general. Around God stand the angels, beings created variously from light or fire, with no need to eat or drink. Some are named, like Gabriel and Michael, and one of them appears again at the very beginning of the religion's story.

  • The Quran was revealed, Muslims believe, to Muhammad through the archangel Gabriel between 610 CE and 632, the year Muhammad died. While he lived, his companions wrote the revelations down, though the main method of transmission was oral, through memorization. The text holds 114 chapters, or surah, containing a combined 6,236 verses. The earlier chapters revealed at Mecca lean toward spiritual themes, while the later Medinan chapters address social and legal matters of the growing community. Beyond the Quran, Muslims hold that God sent earlier revelations, naming the Tawrat, the Zabur, and the Injil. Islam teaches that parts of those earlier scriptures became distorted in text, in interpretation, or both. The Quran alone is viewed as final and unaltered. To supplement and interpret it, jurists turn to the hadith, the written record of Muhammad's life. A hadith carries two parts: the sanad, the chain of narrators, and the matn, the actual wording. Scholars grade them on a scale that runs from "authentic" to "good" to "weak." The Kutub al-Sittah, six books, are the most authentic reports in Sunni Islam, and among them Sahih al-Bukhari is often ranked just after the Quran itself.

  • Five acts of worship are treated as duties, known together as the Pillars of Islam. The first is the shahada, the declaration that anyone wishing to convert must recite before witnesses. The second is salah, prayer offered five times each day, recited in Arabic and performed facing the Kaaba. It consists of repeated units called rakat that involve bowing and prostrating, and it requires ritual purity through the wudu wash or, in some cases, the full-body ghusl. Zakat, almsgiving, asks for a fixed 2.5 percent of accumulated wealth each year from those who can afford it, to help the poor, free captives, relieve debtors, or aid stranded travellers. Its total annual value is reckoned at 15 times greater than global humanitarian aid donations. Fasting during Ramadan precludes food, drink, and other forms of consumption from dawn to sunset, meant to draw a person nearer to God and toward thought of the needy. The hajj is the pilgrimage to Mecca, undertaken at least once by every Muslim with the means, during the month of Dhu al-Hijjah. Pilgrims walk seven times around the Kaaba, which Muslims believe Abraham built, and seven times between Mount Safa and Marwa, retracing the steps of Hagar searching for water for her baby Ishmael. They wear two simple white unstitched cloths called ihram, meant to erase all marks of class and origin among the crowd.

  • Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE and was orphaned early in life. Growing up as a trader, he earned the name "the trusted one" and was sought out as an impartial arbitrator before marrying his employer, the businesswoman Khadija. In 610 CE, troubled by the moral decline and idolatry around him, he retreated to the Cave of Hira on the mountain Jabal al-Nour, where he is said to have received the first revelation. That night is remembered as Laylat al-Qadr, the Night of Power. For 22 years, from age 40 onward, the revelations continued. Many early converts were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves, among them the first muezzin, Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi. The Meccan elite, who profited from pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba, felt their social order threatened. After 12 years of persecution, Muhammad and his companions made the Hijra in 622 to Yathrib, now Medina, where he founded the first Islamic state. The Constitution of Medina, signed by all the city's tribes, granted religious freedoms and a shared duty to defend the city. Meccan forces lost at the Battle of Badr in 624, fought an inconclusive battle at Uhud, and failed to take Medina at the Battle of the Trench in 627. By 629 Muhammad won the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca, and by his death in 632, at age 62, he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.

  • Muhammad died without, in the Sunni view, naming a successor, and the disagreement that followed split Islam at its root. The first leaders, the Caliphs, are remembered in Sunni Islam as the Rightly Guided: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, Ali, and sometimes Hasan ibn Ali. Abu Bakr first crushed rebel tribes in the Ridda wars, then oversaw the beginning of the Quran's compilation. Uthman was elected in 644, and his assassination led to Ali. In the First Civil War, Muhammad's widow Aisha raised an army against Ali and was defeated at the Battle of the Camel. Ali then fought the Syrian governor Mu'awiya at Siffin, and his choice to arbitrate enraged the Kharijites, an extremist sect, one of whose assassins later killed him. Mu'awiya began the Umayyad dynasty by naming his son Yazid I as successor, which sparked the Second Civil War. At the Battle of Karbala, Husayn ibn Ali was killed by Yazid's forces, an event Shias have commemorated every year since. From this came the Sunni-Shia schism. Shias hold that leadership belongs to Muhammad's family through Ali, the ahl al-bayt, pointing to the gathering at Ghadir Khumm where, they say, Muhammad appointed Ali as his successor. The largest Shia branch, the Twelvers, believe in Twelve Imams, the last of whom went into occultation and will return one day.

  • The Abbasid dynasty came to power in 750 through a revolution of non-Arab converts, sidelined Arab clans, and some Shi'a, replacing the Umayyads with a more cosmopolitan rule. What followed is sometimes called the Islamic Golden Age, and its reach across the sciences was wide. Avicenna pioneered experimental medicine, and his The Canon of Medicine served as a standard text in both the Islamic world and Europe for centuries. Rhazes was the first to identify smallpox and measles, while public hospitals issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors. Ibn al-Haytham, regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and called the world's first true scientist, did his decisive work in optics. The Banu Musa brothers' automatic flute player is considered the first programmable machine. Mathematics carries the era's names directly: the word algorithm comes from Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, a founder of algebra, a field named after his book al-jabr. The government paid scientists salaries comparable to professional athletes today. Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university. The House of Wisdom employed Christian and Persian scholars to translate works into Arabic and produce new knowledge. Later, the gunpowder empires reshaped the map: the Ottomans claimed the caliphate, strengthened in 1517 when Selim I took Mecca and Medina, while the Shia Safavid dynasty rose in 1501 and Babur founded the Mughal Empire in South Asia.

  • As of 2020, about 25.6 percent of the world's population, roughly 2 billion people, are Muslims, up from an estimated 12.3 percent in 1900. Projections put the figure at 29.7 percent by 2050. Muslims are the fastest-growing major religious group, driven mainly by a younger average age and higher birth rates rather than conversion, which a Pew study found roughly cancels out between those entering and leaving the faith. About 65 percent of Muslims live in ten countries, the largest populations in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and Nigeria, in that order, with Indonesia home to over 230 million. Roughly 87 to 90 percent of Muslims are Sunni and 10 to 13 percent are Shia, while a third branch, Ibadism, is practised by about 1.45 million, most of them in Oman. Beyond the main branches lie distinct movements: the Ahmadiyya, founded in British India in 1889 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad; Alevism, a syncretic Turkish tradition; Quranism, which rejects the hadith; and Sufism, the mystical-ascetic path that seeks direct personal experience of God. Sufism crossed every denomination, and one of its figures, Jalaluddin Rumi, remains one of the bestselling poets in America. The faith marks its year with a lunar calendar that begins with the Hijra of 622, and its two great festivals fall on fixed lunar dates: Eid al-Fitr on the 1st of Shawwal, ending Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, closing the hajj.

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Common questions

What is Islam and what do Muslims believe?

Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad. Its central belief is tawhid, the oneness of God, along with belief in angels, revelation, prophets, the Day of Resurrection, and divine predestination. Muslims hold the Quran to be the verbatim, final, and unaltered word of God.

How many Muslims are there in the world?

As of 2020, about 2 billion people, or roughly 25.6 percent of the world's population, are Muslims, making them the second-largest religious population after Christians. About 65 percent live in ten countries, with the largest populations in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and Nigeria.

What are the Five Pillars of Islam?

The Five Pillars are the shahada (declaration of faith), salah (five daily prayers), zakat (almsgiving of 2.5 percent of accumulated wealth), sawm (fasting during Ramadan), and hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca). They are considered obligatory acts of worship for Muslims.

When and where did Islam originate?

Islam originated in Mecca around 610 CE, when Muslims believe Muhammad received his first revelation in the Cave of Hira on the mountain Jabal al-Nour. By the time of Muhammad's death in 632, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam.

What is the difference between Sunni and Shia Islam?

Sunni Islam makes up about 87 to 90 percent of Muslims and holds that the first four caliphs were Muhammad's rightful successors. Shia Islam, about 10 to 13 percent, holds that leadership belongs to Muhammad's family through his cousin Ali, the ahl al-bayt. The divide initially arose from disagreements over succession to Muhammad and later grew theological and juridical.

Why are Muslims the world's fastest-growing religious group?

Muslims are the fastest-growing major religious group primarily because of a higher fertility rate and a younger age structure compared to other major religions. Conversion has little net effect, since the number entering and leaving the faith is roughly equal. Projections suggest the Muslim share of the global population will reach 29.7 percent by 2050.

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All sources

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  261. 264BookTwelver Shiism: Unity and Diversity in the Life of Islam, 632 to 1722Andrew J. Newman — Edinburgh University Press — 2013
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  290. 293BookChristianity, Islam, and the WestRobert Burns — University Press of America — 2011
  291. 294BookMuslims in British Local Government: Representing Minority Interests in Hackney, Newham and Tower HamletsEren Tatari — BRILL — 2014
  292. 295Esposito (2003) p. 302Esposito — 2003
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  305. 308SufismAnnemarie Schimmel
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  330. 333Guaranteeing a Minimum Income Has Been a Utopian Dream for CenturiesMerchant, Brian — 14 November 2013
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  334. 337JihadAsma Afsaruddin
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  338. 341BookFood and Dress in Islam: An explanation of matters relating to food and drink and dress in IslamFahd Salem Bahammam — Modern Guide
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  341. 344NewsThe relationship between Muslim men and their beards is a tangled oneAmanullah De Sondy — 28 January 2016
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  343. 346Are Muslims Allowed to Get Tattoos?
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  351. 354BookIslam : religion, history, and civilizationSeyyed Hossein Nasr — HarperOne — 2001
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  355. 358Why Can't a Woman have 2 Husbands?
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  357. 360JournalReported Male Circumcision Practices in a Muslim-Majority SettingHindawi Publishing Corporation — January 2017
  358. 361Islam: Circumcision of boysBbc.co.uk — 13 August 2009
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  360. 363NewsWho, What, Why: What are the burial customs in Islam?Rema Rahman — 25 October 2011
  361. 364News'Islamic' Culture: A Groundless MythSouren Melikian — 4 November 2011
  362. 365BookIslamicate Cosmopolitan SpiritBruce Lawrence — Wiley — 2021
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  368. 371BookIndonesian Heritage-ArchitectureGunawan Tjahjono — Archipelago Press — 1998
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  371. 374BookGeographies of Muslim Identities: Diaspora, Gender and BelongingCara Aitchison et al. — Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. — 2007
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  374. 377The 'West', Islam and IslamismCaroline Cox — June 2003
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  376. 379JournalQutbism: An Ideology of Islamic-FascismDale Eikmeier — 2007
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  378. 381BookThe Politics of Islamic Revivalism: Diversity and Unity: Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.), Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International StudiesShireen Hunter — University of Michigan Press — 2010
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  380. 383BookPiety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle EastDavid D. Grafton — Wipf and Stock Publishers — 2009
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  382. 385JournalThe Origins of the Druze Religion (Fortsetzung)David R. W. Bryer — 1975
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  384. 387One Common FaithUniversal House of Justice
  385. 388JournalInner Truth and Outer History: The Two Worlds of the Ahl-e Haqq of KurdistanZ. Mir-Hosseini — 1994
  386. 389BookDiscoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon: With Travels in Armenia, Kurdistan and the Desert: Being the Result of a Second Expedition Undertaken for the Trustees of the British MuseumAusten Henry Layard — Cambridge University Press — 2010-08-31
  387. 390BookGraceful WomenConstance Elsberg — University of Tennessee Press — 2003
  388. 391BookWritings by St John of DamascusCatholic University of America Press — 1958
  389. 392BookParadise and Hell in Islamic TraditionsChristian Lange — Cambridge University Press — 2015
  390. 393JournalReligion as an influencing factor of right-wing, left-wing and Islamist extremism. Findings of a Swiss youth studyMaria Kamenowski et al. — 2021-06-17
  391. 394BookTolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim TraditionYohanan Friedmann — Cambridge University Press — 2003
  392. 395BookMulticulturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European ApproachTariq Modood — Routledge — 6 April 2006