Plato
Plato was born between 428 and 423 BC into an aristocratic Athenian family. His mother Perictione descended from Solon, the statesman credited with laying the foundations of Athenian democracy. Ancient writers record that Plato had two brothers named Glaucon and Adeimantus, both of whom appear in his Republic dialogue. He also had a sister named Potone and a half brother named Antiphon. During his childhood Athens fought the Peloponnesian War against Sparta. His older brothers distinguished themselves at the battle of Megara in 409 BC. Despite the ongoing war all male citizens received traditional education in gymnastics and music. Ancient tradition claims Plato's favorite employment in youth was poetry. He wrote dithyrambs first then lyric poems and tragedies. He later abandoned this passion and burnt his poems when he met Socrates. Some epigrams are attributed to him but scholars now think these may be spurious.
In his youth Plato encountered Socrates who became his teacher and greatest source of inspiration. They initially met in the company of other Athenian boys in the Palaestra. Plato soon joined Socrates' inner circle meeting with him and other followers. Socrates challenged prevailing focus on natural philosophy by investigating ethics and politics. He examined ideas using a questioning method called the Socratic method. Plato never speaks in his own voice within his dialogues. Every dialogue except the Laws features Socrates though many feature him speaking only rarely. Leo Strauss notes that Socrates' reputation for irony casts doubt on whether Plato's Socrates expresses sincere beliefs. Aristotle attributes a different doctrine regarding Forms to Plato and Socrates. The precise relationship between them remains an area of contention among scholars. When Plato came of age he imagined a life in public affairs according to the Seventh Letter. In 404 Sparta defeated Athens leading to the election of the Thirty Tyrants. Two of Plato's relatives Critias and Charmides were included in this group. Plato declined an invitation to join their administration. He quickly became disillusioned by atrocities committed by the Thirty especially when they tried to implicate Socrates in seizing democratic general Leon of Salamis for summary execution.
After the death of Socrates Plato remained in Athens for roughly three years. He studied with Cratylus who followed Heraclitus and Hermogenes who followed Parmenides. Heraclitus viewed all things as continuously changing while Parmenides argued change is an illusion. Around 396 BC Plato left Athens to study in Megara with Euclid of Megara. He returned to Athens around 394 BC or earlier where he spent time studying mathematics. He studied with Archytas of Tarentum, Theaetetus, Leodamas of Thasos, and Neocleides in the grove of Hecademus northwest of Athens. This grove was named after an Attic hero in Greek mythology. During this period Plato likely began work on early dialogues including the Apology and possibly early drafts of the Gorgias. Speusippus son of Plato's sister Potone joined the group about 390 BC. Eudoxus of Cnidus another early mathematician arrived around 385 BC. After the Corinthian War Plato traveled to southern Italy to study with Archytas and other Pythagoreans. Their influence appears significant according to R.M. Hare. They shared a mystical approach to the soul and its place in the material world. Pythagoras held that all things are number and the cosmos comes from numerical principles.
After his return from Syracuse Plato founded his philosophical school the Academy near the sacred olive grove of Hecademus around 383 BC. At first the property consisted only of a house with a garden. During his lifetime the work of the Academy took part in an open area for study of philosophy and mathematics. From 383 BC until about 366 BC Plato primarily spent time at the Academy writing most dialogues. When Plato was about 40 years old he visited Syracuse while it was under rule of Dionysius roughly 385 BC. Dion of Syracuse became one of Plato's disciples but the tyrant himself turned against Plato. After Dionysius I died in 367 BC Plato returned to Syracuse likely early in 366 BC at request of Dion. He aimed to tutor Dionysius II and guide him to become a philosopher king. Dionysius II expelled Dion after becoming suspicious of him. Plato tried repeatedly to reconcile the two then gave up and returned to Athens. He returned to Syracuse a third time in 361 BC staying over winter until 360 BC. Dionysius kept Plato against his will forcing Plato to appeal to Archytas to intercede before returning to Athens.
Plato's theory of Forms aims to solve what is now known as the problem of universals. It denies reality of the material world considering it only an image or copy of real world. There are two kinds of things: apparent world of material objects grasped by senses which constantly changes, and unchanging unseen world of Forms grasped by reason. Plato's Forms represent types of things properties patterns and relations referred to as objects. Individual tables chairs and cars refer to objects in this world while tableness chairness and carness refer to objects in another world. One of Plato's most cited examples for Forms were truths of geometry such as Pythagorean theorem. The theory first introduced in Phaedo dialogue wherein Socrates disputes pluralism of Anaxagoras. Francis Cornford identified twin pillars of Platonism as theory of Forms on one hand and doctrine of immortality of soul on other. Reality unavailable to those who use their senses according to Socrates. He says he who sees with eyes is blind. Such people willingly ignorant living without divine inspiration and access to higher insights about reality.
For Plato soul was that which gave life characteristic of ancient Greek philosophy. He advocates belief in immortality of soul and several dialogues end with long speeches imagining afterlife. In Timaeus Socrates locates parts of soul within human body. Reason located in head spirit in top third of torso appetite in middle third down to navel. Plato evinces belief in reincarnation in multiple dialogues like Phaedo and Timaeus. Scholars debate whether he intends theory literally true. He uses idea of reincarnation to introduce concept knowledge matter recollection things acquainted before born not observation or study. Keeping theme admitting own ignorance Socrates regularly complains forgetfulness. In Meno Socrates uses geometrical example to expound view knowledge acquired by recollection. Socrates elicits fact concerning geometrical construction from slave boy unable otherwise know fact due lack education. Knowledge must be eternal non-perceptible Form. Plato discusses aspects of epistemology in several dialogues. Socrates inverts common man's intuition about what knowable and real. Reality unavailable to those using senses while most take objects of senses to be real if anything is. Plato associates knowledge with apprehension unchanging Forms and relationships called expertise in dialectic through processes collection and division.
Plato's most famous doctrines contained in Republic Laws and Statesman discuss politics. Societies have tripartite class structure corresponding to appetite/spirit/reason structure of individual soul. Productive workers include laborers carpenters plumbers masons merchants farmers ranchers etc. These correspond to appetite part of soul. Protective warriors or guardians adventurous strong brave armed forces correspond to spirit part of soul. Governing rulers or philosopher kings intelligent rational self-controlled love wisdom well suited make decisions community correspond to reason part of soul very few. According to Socrates state made up different kinds souls overall decline from aristocracy rule best to timocracy rule honorable then oligarchy rule few then democracy rule people finally tyranny rule one person tyrant. Plato poses question What is justice examining both individual justice and justice informing societies. His answer rests upon fundamental responsibility seek wisdom leading understanding Form Good. Justice obtained when knowledge how fulfill moral political function society put practice. Plato views The Good as supreme Form existing even beyond being. He used mythological narratives like story Atlantis Myth Er Allegory Cave convey conclusions philosophical reasoning. Only few capable interested following reasoned philosophical discourse men attracted by stories tales.
During Islamic Golden ages Neoplatonism revived from founding father Plotinus. This philosophical current permeated Islamic scholarship accentuating transcendent facet Qur'anic conception God while seemingly neglecting creative. Tradition introduced Al-Farabi subsequently elaborated figures such Avicenna postulated phenomena emanated divine source. Functioned conduit bridging transcendental nature divine with tangible reality creation. Facilitated integration Platonic philosophy mystical Islamic thought fostering synthesis ancient wisdom religious insight. Inspired Republic Al-Farabi extended inquiry beyond mere political theory proposing ideal city governed philosopher kings. Plato referenced Jewish philosopher Talmudic scholar Maimonides Guide Perplexed. Many commentaries translated Arabic into Latin influencing medieval scholastics. Only Platonic work known western scholarship Timaeus until translations Latin made beginning 12th century. Study continued Byzantine Empire Caliphates during Islamic Golden Age Spain Golden age Jewish culture. During Renaissance Gemistos Plethon brought original writings Florence Constantinople century its fall. Greatest early modern scientists artists broke Scholasticism support Plato-inspired Lorenzo grandson Cosimo saw philosophy basis progress arts sciences. 17th century Cambridge Platonists sought reconcile problematic beliefs metempsychosis polyamory Christianity. By 19th century reputation restored at least par Aristotle's influence especially strong mathematics sciences. Albert Einstein suggested scientist taking philosophy seriously avoid systematization take many roles possibly appear Platonist Pythagorean viewpoint logical simplicity indispensable effective tool research. Alfred North Whitehead said safest general characterization European philosophical tradition series footnotes Plato.
Common questions
When was Plato born and what family background did he have?
Plato was born between 428 and 423 BC into an aristocratic Athenian family. His mother Perictione descended from Solon, the statesman credited with laying the foundations of Athenian democracy.
Who were Plato's brothers and how did they appear in his work?
Ancient writers record that Plato had two brothers named Glaucon and Adeimantus who both appear in his Republic dialogue. He also had a sister named Potone and a half brother named Antiphon.
What happened to Plato after Socrates died in 399 BC?
After the death of Socrates Plato remained in Athens for roughly three years before leaving around 396 BC to study in Megara with Euclid of Megara. He returned to Athens around 394 BC or earlier where he spent time studying mathematics with Archytas of Tarentum and others.
When did Plato found the Academy and what was its initial state?
Plato founded his philosophical school the Academy near the sacred olive grove of Hecademus around 383 BC. At first the property consisted only of a house with a garden while later it took part in an open area for study of philosophy and mathematics.
How many times did Plato visit Syracuse and when did these visits occur?
Plato visited Syracuse three times starting around 385 BC when Dionysius I ruled. He returned to Syracuse again likely early in 366 BC at request of Dion and then a third time in 361 BC staying over winter until 360 BC.
What is Plato's theory of Forms and how does it define reality?
Plato's theory of Forms aims to solve what is now known as the problem of universals by denying reality of the material world considering it only an image or copy of real world. There are two kinds of things: apparent world of material objects grasped by senses which constantly changes, and unchanging unseen world of Forms grasped by reason.