Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar entered the world on 12 or the 13th of July 100 BC into a family claiming ancient divine lineage. His clan traced its roots to Julus, son of Aeneas and founder of Alba Longa, making them descendants of Venus in public consciousness. The Julii Caesares were not politically dominant during the middle republic, though they produced consuls by 157 BC. His father served as praetor between 92 and 85 BC and governed Asia for two years from 91 to 90 BC. He married Aurelia, daughter of the influential Aurelii Cottae, producing two daughters alongside Caesar himself.
The young boy faced immediate danger when Lucius Cornelius Sulla seized Rome in 82 BC after winning his civil war. Sulla ordered Caesar to divorce Cornelia, daughter of Cinna, who had been consul earlier. Caesar refused this command and questioned Sulla's authority implicitly. The dictator may have placed him on proscription lists, forcing the teenager into hiding. Relatives and Vestal Virgins intervened to secure a compromise allowing Caesar to keep his wife and property while resigning his priesthood.
Sulla reportedly remarked that he saw many Mariuses in the boy, referring to Caesar's uncle Gaius Marius. This comment foreshadowed the political turbulence awaiting the future general. After surviving this early crisis, Caesar won the civic crown at the Siege of Mytilene in 81 BC for saving a fellow citizen's life. The privileges attached to this honor included wearing it publicly and standing before senators upon entering their assembly.
Caesar returned to Rome after Sulla's death in 78 BC and began building his career through legal challenges. He prosecuted Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella unsuccessfully in 77 BC but succeeded against Gaius Antonius Hybrida the following year. His studies were interrupted by the Third Mithridatic War during the winter of 75 and 74 BC when he collected troops locally to fight Mithridates' forces.
A famous incident occurred when pirates intercepted him while traveling to Rhodes seeking tutelage from Apollonius Molon. They demanded fifty talents as ransom according to Plutarch and Suetonius, though modern scholars doubt this exact sum. After paying what was likely less, Caesar returned with a fleet to capture and execute them, demonstrating his ruthless determination.
His political rise accelerated when he became pontifex in 73 BC and military tribune in 71 BC. In 69 BC he served under Gaius Antistius Vetus in Hispania Ulterior, earning a Senate seat for life. The same year his aunt Julia and wife Cornelia died, prompting public eulogies that displayed Marius's suppressed images. This gesture challenged Sullan nobles like Quintus Lutatius Catulus yet aligned with reconciliation trends.
Caesar won election as pontifex maximus in 63 BC despite facing rivals including Catulus and Publius Servilius Isauricus. Ancient sources allege bribery funded his victory, possibly through Pompey's support. He also supported land reform proposals by Publius Servilius Rullus and participated in trials against conspirators during the Catilinarian affair.
The Gallic Wars began in April 58 BC when Caesar halted migrating Helvetii tribes near Geneva using a constructed wall. He defeated them at Bibracte before forcing their return to original homes. His campaigns extended northward responding to requests from Aedui tribes seeking aid against Ariovistus king of Suebi. Victory came at the Battle of Vosges where Roman forces crushed Germanic invaders.
Winter quarters near Belgae triggered uprisings across Gaul leading to victories at the Battle of the Sabis in 57 BC. By 56 BC Caesar had subjugated most regions except central areas while fighting Veneti tribes in Brittany. The Rhine river marked Rome's northern frontier until Caesar built an engineering marvel bridge crossing it to demonstrate imperial power.
Expeditions into southern Britain occurred in 55 and 54 BC though winter uprisings led by Eburones and Belgae nearly destroyed a legion and five cohorts. Caesar lured rebels into unfavorable terrain and routed them decisively. A greater challenge emerged in 52 BC when Vercingetorix of Averni united central Gaul against Roman occupation.
Initial defeat at Gergovia gave way to siege warfare at Alesia where Caesar won despite being besieged himself. This victory forced Vercingetorix's surrender and ended major resistance by 51 BC. Ten volumes of Commentaries documented these operations from 58 to 52 BC, serving as both military record and political propaganda for Rome.
Trust between Caesar and Pompey disintegrated during 52 to 49 BC as Senate conservatives pushed for recall of Caesar's command. On the 7th of January 49 BC the Senate declared him enemy after expelling supportive tribunes. Around 10 or the 11th of January Caesar crossed the Rubicon with Legio XIII Gemina igniting civil war according to Plutarch and Suetonius.
Pompey fled south while Caesar captured communication routes before pausing negotiations that failed amid mutual distrust. He defeated Pompey's legates at Ilerda then pursued him to Greece arriving early 48 BC. The decisive Battle of Pharsalus occurred on the 9th of August 48 BC ending Pompey's forces though he escaped to Egypt where he was killed upon arrival.
Caesar arrived three days later on the 2nd of October 48 BC and arbitrated Egyptian succession between Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra. An affair began while enduring sieges until March 47 BC when Mithridates of Pergamum reinforced Roman forces defeating Ptolemy at Nile battle. Cleopatra installed as ruler produced son Caesarion in late June 47 BC.
Pharnaces king of Crimea invaded Pontus across Black Sea but faced immediate defeat at Zela leading to famous phrase "I came, I saw, I conquered." Civil wars continued through Africa and Spain culminating in bloody Battle of Munda on the 17th of March 45 BC where Labienus died fighting.
Caesar assumed dictatorship multiple times starting February 44 BC after first appointment held elections for eleven days. By April 46 BC annual dictatorships replaced temporary appointments reflecting his dominant position secured by personal status rather than legal powers. Senate granted him power over war peace traditionally held by comitia centuriata alongside symbolic honors like golden chair seating and public statue erection.
Most significant reform abolished traditional lunisolar calendar replacing it with solar Julian calendar now bearing his name. Number magistrates senators increased from 600 to 900 enabling better administration rewarding supporters offices. Colonies founded outside Italy notably Carthage Corinth discharged population reducing unrest while citizenship extended Cisalpine Gaul Cádiz communities.
Grain dole reduced from 320,000 down around 150,000 tightening qualifications special bonuses offered families many children stalling depopulation Plans drawn census conduct. Debt repayment program instituted novel approach no debts forgiven paid kind rents remitted certain amounts thrown games distributing food.
Building programs continued Forum Caesar Temple Venus Genetrix expansion Ostia port canal Corinthian Isthmus planned heavy-handedness ignoring Senate alienated many Romans. Corruption partisans overlooked ensuring support provincial cities client kingdoms extorted paying bills allowing subordinates illegal triumph processions resigning consulship allies take rest year.
Attempts January 44 BC calling Caesar dictator shut down two tribunes before supportive crowd deposed ejected Senate undermining original arguments pursuing civil war protecting tribunes angered public revering protectors popular freedom Shortly before the 15th of February 44 BC assumed dictatorship life ending hopes powers temporary putting end any restoration free republic so long power held.
Plan assassinate started summer 45 BC recruiting Antony declined giving warning By February 44 BC sixty conspirators joined former Pompeians Caesarians leaders Gaius Trebonius Decimus Brutus Cassius Brutus praetors 44 BC Trebonius Decimus joined Caesar war Brutus Cassius joined Pompey Servius Sulpicius Galba Lucius Minucius Basilus Lucius Tullius Cimber Gaius Servilius Casca involved.
Brutus claimed descent Lucius Junius Brutus driving kings Gaius Servilius Ahala freeing Rome incipient tyranny main leader graffiti examples late autumn 45 BC "If only lived now Brutus" on Capitoline statue Lucius Brutus "If only you [Lucius Brutus] alive" "[Lucius Brutus] descendants unworthy" challenging Marcus Brutus act "Brutus became first consul expelled kings; This man [Caesar] finally king expelled consuls" statue Caesar.
Date decided the 15th of March Ides March three days Caesar intended leave Parthian campaign Senate meeting last departure. Day symbolically important consuls took office mid-2nd century BC. Attended Senate meeting Curia Pompey approached golden chair foot statue Pompey attacked daggers fell silence reply Brutus appearance "you too child?" stabbed least twenty-three times died once.
Assassins seized Capitoline hill killing dictator summoning public meeting Forum coldly received population unable fully secure city Lepidus moved troops Tiber Island into proper Antony urged illogical compromise position Senate declared tyrant conspirators punished approved funeral body move Regia official home palace kings forum cremated inflamed public against assassins triggered mob violence lasting months forcing assassins flee capital Antony acted suppress force.
In 44 BC seven-day cometary outburst Romans believed represent deification Caesar giving name Caesar's Comet site cremation Temple Caesar begun triumvirs 42 BC east side main square Roman Forum altar remains terms will read public gave generous donative plebs large left principal heir Gaius Octavius great-nephthen Apollonia adopted will.
Resumption pre-existing republic proved impossible actors appealed aftermath Caesar death liberty vengeance mobilize huge armies leading series civil wars first war Antony 43 BC Senate including senators Caesarian Pompeian persuasion resulted Octavian exploiting chaos seize consulship join Antony Lepidus form Second Triumvirate purging political enemies series proscriptions secured deification Caesar Senate declared the 1st of January 42 placed among Roman gods marched east second war saw defeat tyrannicides battle resulting final death republican cause three-way division much Roman world.
By 31 BC Caesar heir taken sole control empire ejecting rivals after two decades civil war Pretending restore republic masked autocracy acceptable war-weary Romans marked establishment new Roman monarchy. Title Caesar adopted synonym emperor throughout Roman Empire gave rise modern descendants Kaiser Tsar frequently appeared literary artistic works considered greatest military commanders history.
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Common questions
When was Julius Caesar born and what family did he belong to?
Gaius Julius Caesar entered the world on 12 or the 13th of July 100 BC into a family claiming ancient divine lineage. His clan traced its roots to Julus, son of Aeneas and founder of Alba Longa, making them descendants of Venus in public consciousness.
What happened when Lucius Cornelius Sulla seized Rome in 82 BC?
Sulla ordered Caesar to divorce Cornelia, daughter of Cinna, who had been consul earlier. The dictator may have placed him on proscription lists, forcing the teenager into hiding until relatives and Vestal Virgins intervened to secure a compromise allowing Caesar to keep his wife and property while resigning his priesthood.
How long did the Gallic Wars last and where were they fought?
The Gallic Wars began in April 58 BC when Caesar halted migrating Helvetii tribes near Geneva using a constructed wall. Campaigns extended northward responding to requests from Aedui tribes seeking aid against Ariovistus king of Suebi and continued through southern Britain expeditions in 55 and 54 BC before ending major resistance by 51 BC.
On what date was Julius Caesar assassinated and how many times was he stabbed?
Date decided the 15th of March Ides March three days Caesar intended leave Parthian campaign Senate meeting last departure. He was stabbed least twenty-three times died once after being attacked with daggers at the Curia Pompey.
What calendar reform did Julius Caesar implement and when did it take effect?
Most significant reform abolished traditional lunisolar calendar replacing it with solar Julian calendar now bearing his name. Number magistrates senators increased from 600 to 900 enabling better administration rewarding supporters offices.