European balance of power
In 431 BC, the Peloponnesian War erupted between Athens and Sparta. These two powerful Greek city-states had previously united to defeat invading Persian forces from the east. Their alliance dissolved into a brutal struggle for supremacy across the Aegean Sea. The conflict drained resources and left Greece vulnerable to external threats. A Macedonian king named Philip II exploited this instability to conquer the fractured region. His son Alexander the Great later annexed the entire Persian Empire. This expansion created a hellenistic world that stretched from Egypt to India. When Alexander died in 323 BC, his empire split among four successors. Several independent kingdoms emerged from the chaos of his death.
The Battle of Covadonga took place around 718 or 722 on the Iberian Peninsula. An Asturian army achieved its first Christian victory over Umayyad Caliphate forces there. This event marked the traditional beginning of the Reconquista campaign. Centuries later, the Nasrid kingdom of Granada fell in 1492 to Spanish rulers Ferdinand II and Isabella I. Meanwhile, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Holy Roman Emperor on Christmas Day 800. He united most of modern France, Germany, Switzerland, Austria, the Low Countries, and Italy under one rule. The Investiture Controversy erupted between the German Emperor and the Roman Pontiff. Their rivalry allowed autonomous city-states to rise in northern Italy. It also enabled an independent feudal monarchy to develop in France under the House of Capet. The First Crusade opened Mediterranean trade routes in 1099. The Fourth Crusade resulted in the formation of a Venetian maritime empire in 1204.
The Thirty Years War lasted from 1618 until 1648 across Central Europe. An estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died due to battle, famine, and disease. Some areas of what is now modern Germany experienced population declines exceeding 50 percent. Catholic French allies joined Protestant nations to defeat the Habsburg alliance during this conflict. The Treaty of Westphalia ended the war and established new principles for state sovereignty. The Holy Roman Empire became more decentralized after these negotiations. Constituent states like Prussia could pursue their own foreign policy independently. Austria controlled some territories outside the Empire boundaries. France under Louis XIV took continental power status following the treaty. The Treaty of the Pyrenees further solidified French dominance over the region. Charles V of Habsburg had previously divided his domains between Spanish and Austrian branches in 1556.
Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, and France formed the major European powers of the eighteenth century. These nations changed alliances multiple times throughout the century. They engaged in wars including the War of the Spanish Succession and the Seven Years War. English and Dutch foreign policies often involved paying large subsidies to European allies. These funds financed massive armies designed to counter perceived threats from France or Spain. Grand Alliances reached their height during conflicts against Louis XIV and Louis XV of France. After Britain won the Seven Years War while allied with Prussia, other powers viewed it as a greater threat than France. Several states entered the American War of Independence hoping to overturn British strength. They sought independence for the Thirteen colonies of British America to weaken London's global position.
Otto von Bismarck managed to maintain balance of power for twenty years after 1871. He created complex alliances like the Triple Alliance between European nations. The German Empire emerged as a dominant nation excluding Austria following rapid victories over both rivals. Kaiser Wilhelm II set out on an imperialist course called Weltpolitik after 1890. This policy aimed to increase the empire's influence and control over the world. Newly created alliances proved fragile and triggered the First World War in 1914. Germany and Austria-Hungary fought against Great Britain, France, Italy, and Russia until 1917. The Treaty of Versailles attempted to abolish the Balance of Power concept after the war. It replaced this idea with the League of Nations and formed countries based mostly on ethnicity. The failure of democratic states to prevent Nazi Germany advanced led to the Second World War.
The Allies split into two blocs during the post-Second World War era. The Eastern Bloc affiliated with the Soviet Union and Socialist nations across Central Europe, Asia, and the Caucasus. Western democracies including France, the United States, and the United Kingdom formed the Western Bloc. Neutral or non-aligned countries included Ireland, Sweden, Switzerland, Austria, and Yugoslavia. German lands divided into East Germany and West Germany until 1989. Most Western Bloc countries joined the military alliance known as NATO. Eastern Bloc countries formed the Warsaw Pact organization. Lord Ismay served as the first NATO Secretary General. He famously stated the organization's initial goal was to keep Russians out, Americans in, and Germans down. A strategic balance between Western and Russian power continues despite the collapse of the Soviet Union. Many former Communist countries in Central Europe have since joined both the EU and NATO.
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Common questions
When did the Peloponnesian War erupt between Athens and Sparta?
The Peloponnesian War erupted in 431 BC. This conflict drained resources and left Greece vulnerable to external threats.
What happened during the Thirty Years War from 1618 until 1648 across Central Europe?
An estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died due to battle, famine, and disease. The Treaty of Westphalia ended the war and established new principles for state sovereignty.
Who managed to maintain balance of power for twenty years after 1871?
Otto von Bismarck managed to maintain balance of power for twenty years after 1871. He created complex alliances like the Triple Alliance between European nations.
Which countries formed the major European powers of the eighteenth century?
Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, and France formed the major European powers of the eighteenth century. These nations changed alliances multiple times throughout the century.
When did German lands divide into East Germany and West Germany until 1989?
German lands divided into East Germany and West Germany until 1989. Most Western Bloc countries joined the military alliance known as NATO.