Alps
The African and Eurasian tectonic plates collided over tens of millions of years to create the Alps. This extreme shortening caused marine sedimentary rocks to rise by thrusting and folding into high mountain peaks. Mont Blanc spans the French-Italian border at 4,807 meters as the highest point in the range. The Matterhorn shows evidence of great folding with its tip consisting of gneisses from the African plate. The base of the peak below the glaciated area consists of European basement rock. A sequence of Tethyan marine sediments and their oceanic basement is sandwiched between these two continental sources. Geologists like Stefan Schmid note that Western Alps underwent a metamorphic event in the Cenozoic Era while Austroalpine peaks experienced events in the Cretaceous Period. These differences create distinct nappe formations across the region. Earthquakes continue today with magnitudes typically between 6 and 7 on the Richter scale. Ongoing topographic uplift occurs at rates up to about 2.5 mm per year in the North and Central Alps.
Evidence of human habitation in the Alps goes back to the Paleolithic era when settlements formed along lake shores and in cave systems. Ötzi the mummified man was discovered on a glacier at the Austrian, Italian border in 1991. He has been determined to be 5,000 years old and killed there about 5300 years ago. His remains and personal belongings are now exhibited at the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology in Bolzano. By the 6th century BC the Celtic La Tène culture was well established in the region. Hannibal notably crossed the Alps with a herd of elephants during the Second Punic War in 218 BC. Napoleon Bonaparte crossed one of the mountain passes with an army of 40,000 troops in 1800. The Romans built several roads over mountain passes to control territory west north and north-east of their home base. Medieval hospices were established by religious orders at summits of main passes like the Great St Bernard Pass. Today undocumented migrants cross these same routes often facing dangers comparable to water crossings between Tripoli and Lampedusa.
The peaks were once seen as terrifying abodes of dragons and demons causing people to blindfold themselves when crossing passes. Charles VII of France ordered his chamberlain to climb Mont Aiguille in 1356. Leonardo da Vinci climbed a mountain possibly Monte Rosa and described a sky blue like that of a gentian. Conrad Gessner became the first naturalist to ascend mountains in the 16th century writing about finding the theatre of the Lord there. Horace-Bénédict de Saussure left a law career to become a naturalist studying glaciers and geology in the Bernese Oberland. He joined the third ascent of Mont Blanc in 1787. Albrecht von Haller published Die Alpen in 1732 describing the mountains as an area of mythical purity. Jean-Jacques Rousseau presented the Alps as a place of allure and beauty in Julie or the New Heloise published in 1761. Poets like Wordsworth visited in 1790 while Mary Shelley conceived Frankenstein on the shores of Lake Geneva during a thunderstorm in 1816. The Golden Age of Alpinism began with Edward Whymper reaching the top of the Matterhorn in 1865 after seven attempts.
The Alps are split into five climatic zones each with different vegetation ranging from colline to glacial areas. Snowfall begins in November at altitudes between 1,500 and 2,500 meters accumulating through April or May when melt begins. The mean precipitation ranges from 600 mm per year to over 4,000 mm per year depending on location. The Aletsch Glacier surface is lower than it was 150 years ago showing visible shrinkage. Forty percent of glaciation in Austria has disappeared since 1850 while 30% of that in Switzerland has vanished. Scientists project increased temperatures will affect snowpack and river runoff throughout the 22nd century. Each year more water is diverted from rivers for snowmaking in ski resorts creating unknown environmental effects. High-water levels in streams peak in June and July when snow melts at higher altitudes. The Rhône Glacier ends in ice caves by trailing into lakes or rivers shedding snowmelt on meadows below. Steep valleys like the Inn valley show terraced structures caused by erosion during past ice ages.
Thirty thousand species of wildlife inhabit the Alps ranging from tiny snow fleas to brown bears adapted to harsh cold conditions. Alpine ibex live as high as 4,000 meters descending to eat succulent alpine grasses found in caves. Chamois are smaller antelopes common throughout the entire range living above tree line. Marmots hibernate in large groups beneath alpine pastures almost exclusively above tree line up to 3,000 meters. Golden eagles and bearded vultures nest high on rocky ledges at altitudes of 2,500 meters. The most common bird is the alpine chough scavenging at climber's huts or Jungfraujoch tourist destination. Blue butterflies fly as high as 3,000 meters drinking from snowmelt while swallowtail Parnassius family habitats reach 2,800 meters. Twelve species of beetles have habitats up to the snow line including Rosalia alpina formerly collected for colors but now protected. Spiders such as wolf spiders live above snow line visible as high as 2,500 meters. Scorpions can be found in Italian Alps while adders and vipers hibernate underground soaking warmth on rocky ledges.
Fourteen million people spread across eight countries maintain farming and forestry as mainstays of Alpine culture. In mid-June cows move to highest pastures close to snowline watched by herdsmen living in stone huts or wooden barns during summer months. Villagers celebrate Almabtrieb when cows return in mid-September decorating them with garlands and enormous cowbells. A wheel of cheese from Emmental in Switzerland can weigh up to 45 kilograms while Beaufort in Savoy reaches 60 kilograms. Haymaking remains important though slopes are so steep that scythes are usually necessary to cut grass. People live in homes built according to medieval designs with kitchens separated from living areas called stube heated by stove. The typical Swiss chalet originated in Bernese Oberland facing south or downhill with solid wood construction. Steeply gabled roofs allow accumulated snow to slide off easily while stairs sometimes lead to upper levels from outside. Roofs constructed from schist gneiss or slate function as insulation from cold winters. Thick pieces of orthogneiss measuring 4 to 7 cm are used under strict architectural regulations bordering national parks like Vanoise-Grand Paradis.
Over 120 million annual visitors make the Alps one of more popular tourist destinations globally with resorts recording over a million each year. Tourism industry began early 19th century when foreigners visited bases enjoying scenery staying at spa-resorts. Large hotels were built during Belle Époque period while cog-railways brought tourists to ever-higher elevations. Jungfraubahn terminates at Jungfraujoch well above eternal snow-line after going through tunnel in Eiger mountain. Winter sports became dominant industry by end of 20th century expanding significantly after World War II. Ski runs built by mechanical means have destroyed underlying tundra from which plant life cannot recover during non-skiing months. Areas practicing natural piste type slope building preserve fragile underlayers better than mechanized alternatives. The region hosts Winter Olympic Games across Swiss French Italian Austrian and German Alps. Climate change adaptation needs arise due to impacts on regional socio-economic activities including reduced snow cover duration of 5.6% per decade over last 50 years. Water availability for lowlands faces threats from steady decrease of glaciated areas vastly accelerated during last 30 to 50 years.
Common questions
How did the African and Eurasian tectonic plates create the Alps?
The African and Eurasian tectonic plates collided over tens of millions of years to create the Alps. This extreme shortening caused marine sedimentary rocks to rise by thrusting and folding into high mountain peaks.
When was Ötzi the mummified man discovered on a glacier at the Austrian Italian border?
Ötzi the mummified man was discovered on a glacier at the Austrian, Italian border in 1991. He has been determined to be 5,000 years old and killed there about 5300 years ago.
Who climbed Mont Blanc for the third ascent in 1787?
Horace-Bénédict de Saussure joined the third ascent of Mont Blanc in 1787 after leaving his law career to become a naturalist studying glaciers and geology in the Bernese Oberland.
What is the highest point in the Alpine range spanning the French-Italian border?
Mont Blanc spans the French-Italian border at 4,807 meters as the highest point in the range. The Matterhorn shows evidence of great folding with its tip consisting of gneisses from the African plate.
How many species of wildlife inhabit the Alps ranging from tiny snow fleas to brown bears adapted to harsh cold conditions?
Thirty thousand species of wildlife inhabit the Alps ranging from tiny snow fleas to brown bears adapted to harsh cold conditions. Alpine ibex live as high as 4,000 meters descending to eat succulent alpine grasses found in caves.