Philip II of Spain
On the 21st of May 1527, a baby boy was born inside the Palacio de Pimentel in Valladolid. This child would become Philip II of Spain. His father was Emperor Charles V and his mother was Isabella of Portugal. The court of Castile shaped his early years more than any other influence. A royal governess named Leonor de Mascareñas cared for him until his mother died in 1539. He grew close to two pages from Portugal named Rui Gomes da Silva and Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga. These men served him throughout their lives alongside Antonio Pérez who became his secretary in 1541.
Philip received instruction from Juan Martínez Siliceo who later became archbishop of Toledo. He studied with humanists like Juan Cristóbal Calvete de Estrella. By age sixteen he governed the most extensive empire in the world as Duke of Milan. His father left him with written instructions emphasizing piety patience modesty and distrust. Philip spoke softly and possessed an icy self-mastery that impressed observers. One minister described his smile as being cut by a sword. He felt culturally Spanish despite holding titles across Europe.
Charles V left his son Philip with a debt of about 36 million ducats and an annual deficit of 1 million ducats. This financial burden caused Philip II to default on loans in 1557 1560 1575 and 1596 including debts owed to Poland known as Neapolitan sums. Lenders held no power over the King and could not force repayment of these obligations. The flow of income from the New World proved vital to his militant foreign policy yet his exchequer faced bankruptcy repeatedly.
Spanish culture flourished during Philip's reign beginning what historians call the Spanish Golden Age. Sofonisba Anguissola gained fame for her talent and unusual role as a woman artist at court. A fire in Valladolid in 1561 prompted Philip to move his Court to Madrid instead of Lisbon. He converted the Royal Alcázar of Madrid into a royal palace between 1561 and 1598 using tradesmen from the Netherlands Italy and France. Madrid has remained the capital of Spain except for a brief period under Philip III.
Philip felt it necessary to be involved in every detail of governance. He presided over specialized councils for state affairs finance war and the Inquisition. His system managed affairs inefficiently even damaging state business as seen in the Perez affair. Authority defaulted into Philip's hands especially as manager and final arbiter of constant conflict between different authorities.
In 1558 Turkish admiral Piyale Pasha captured the Balearic Islands inflicting great damage on Menorca while raiding coasts of the Spanish mainland. Fear of Islamic domination caused Philip to pursue an aggressive foreign policy against Ottoman expansion. The Holy League assembled at Messina in 1560 consisting of 200 ships carrying 30,000 soldiers under Giovanni Andrea Doria. On the 14th of May 1560 forces led by Piyale Pasha won an overwhelming victory at the Battle of Djerba losing 60 ships and 20,000 men.
Ottoman fleets later laid siege to Malta but Spanish relief forces drove them out. The grave threat posed by increasing Ottoman domination reversed with destruction of nearly the entire Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. Don John of Austria commanded this Holy League fleet alongside Don Álvaro de Bazán. A fleet sent by Philip reconquered Tunis from Ottomans in 1573 though Uluç Ali Reis recaptured it four years later with 250 galleys.
Lepanto marked a permanent reversal in balance of naval power ending threat of Ottoman control. In 1585 a peace treaty was signed with Ottomans. Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa founded colonies Nombre de Jesús and Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe in Strait of Magellan in 1584. Most settlers died from cold or starvation leaving ruins when Sir Thomas Cavendish arrived in 1587.
Philip appointed his half-sister Margaret of Parma as Governor of Netherlands before leaving for Spanish kingdoms in 1559. He forced her to adjust policy based on advice from Cardinal Granvelle who was greatly disliked locally. Protestant preachers sparked anti-clerical riots known as Iconoclast Fury in 1566 prompting army of Duke of Alba to go offensive.
In 1568 Alba executed Lamoral Count of Egmont and Philip de Montmorency Count of Horn in Brussels central square alienating local aristocracy further. Massacres occurred in Mechelen Naarden Zutphen and Haarlem. Alba boasted burning or executing 18,600 persons in addition to far greater number massacred during war including many women and children. Total Flemish victims numbered at least 50,000.
Rampant inflation prevented Philip from paying soldiers consistently leading to Spanish Fury at Antwerp in 1576 where soldiers killed 6,000 citizens. William the Silent Prince of Orange invaded with Protestant army holding Holland and Zeeland after 1572. In 1584 Balthasar Gérard assassinated William following offer of reward of 25,000 crowns by Philip calling him pest on Christianity. Eight decades of war ended in 1648 when Dutch Republic recognized independent by Spanish Crown costing estimated 600,000 to 700,000 victims.
Young King Sebastian of Portugal died without descendants at Battle of Alcácer Quibir in 1578 triggering succession crisis. Cardinal Henry succeeded him but had no descendants having taken holy orders. Three grandchildren of Manuel I claimed throne: Infanta Catarina Duchess of Braganza António Prior of Crato and Philip II of Spain. António acclaimed King in many cities while Council Governors declared Philip legal successor.
Philip marched into Portugal defeating Prior António's troops in Battle of Alcântara in 1580. Portuguese suffered 4,000 killed wounded or captured while Spanish sustained only 500 casualties. Fernando Álvarez de Toledo Duke of Alba imposed subjection before entering Lisbon seizing immense treasure. Philip crowned Philip I of Portugal on the 17th of July 1580 recognized by Cortes of Tomar beginning near sixty-year personal union under Philippine Dynasty.
He made Albert of Austria viceroy in Lisbon leaving for Madrid in 1583 establishing Council of Portugal advising on affairs giving prominent positions to Portuguese nobles allowing autonomous law currency government following pattern rule by councils. This gave Philip control extensive Portuguese Empire including territories across globe.
Philip married 37-year-old Queen Mary I of England at Winchester Cathedral on the 25th of July 1554 just two days after first meeting. Their marriage treaty provided England would not obliged provide military support to Philip father any war. All official documents dated with both names coins showed heads together Great Seal depicted seated holding crown jointly. Couple had no children though title King Ireland created 1542 by Henry VIII later rectified by papal bull recognizing Philip and Mary rightful rulers.
Mary died 1558 ending union revitalizing Roman Catholic Church hopes. Elizabeth I succeeded throne as Protestant daughter Henry VIII Anne Boleyn. Philip maintained peace defending Elizabeth from Pope threat excommunication preserving European balance power until Treaty Nonsuch signed 1585 promising troops supplies anti-Spanish rebels Netherlands.
Execution Mary Queen Scots 1587 ended Philip hopes placing Catholic English throne turning plans direct invasion England return country Catholicism. Spanish Armada fleet sent 1588 rendezvous Army Flanders convey across Channel operation little chance success due delays lack communication deep bay fleet. Storm struck English Channel devastating large numbers Spanish fleet destroyed harsh weather majority Armada wrecked returning Spain.
Philip II died the 13th of September 1598 at El Escorial aged 71 after prolonged illness likely cancer surrounded priests family trusted officials. His personal chamber divided main room bedroom study oratory following layout monastery father. Most notable feature monarch bed positioned observe liturgy church main altar bedside despite severe pain final months continued review state papers correspondence.
Early reign Dutch might laid weapons if desisted trying suppress Protestantism devotion Catholicism not permit doing so. He enforced Catholic orthodoxy intensification Inquisition barring students studying elsewhere banning books printed Spaniards outside kingdom authorizing burning at least 70,000 volumes. Archbishop Bartolome Carranza Toledo jailed 17 years publishing ideas seeming sympathetic degree Protestantism library contained 40,000 volumes including 1,800 Arabic titles protected banned books upper floor room.
Supporters presented him archetypical gentleman full piety Christian virtues enemies depicted fanatical despotic monster responsible inhuman cruelties barbarism Philip prohibited biographical account life published alive ordered private correspondence burned shortly before death. Popular image King survives today created eve death when many European princes religious leaders turned against Spain pillar Counter-Reformation. English historians tend show Philip fanatical despotical criminal imperialist ruler minimizing military victories magnifying defeats.
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Common questions
When was Philip II of Spain born and where did he spend his early years?
Philip II of Spain was born on the 21st of May 1527 inside the Palacio de Pimentel in Valladolid. His early years were shaped by the court of Castile under the care of royal governess Leonor de Mascareñas until his mother Isabella of Portugal died in 1539.
What financial challenges did Philip II of Spain face during his reign as King of Spain?
Philip II of Spain inherited a debt of about 36 million ducats from his father Emperor Charles V along with an annual deficit of 1 million ducats. This burden caused him to default on loans in 1557, 1560, 1575, and 1596 while lenders held no power to force repayment despite New World income funding his foreign policy.
How did Philip II of Spain influence Spanish culture and architecture during his rule?
Spanish culture flourished during Philip II of Spain's reign beginning what historians call the Spanish Golden Age. A fire in Valladolid in 1561 prompted Philip to move his Court to Madrid where he converted the Royal Alcázar into a royal palace between 1561 and 1598 using tradesmen from the Netherlands Italy and France.
Why did Philip II of Spain engage in military conflicts against Ottoman fleets in the Mediterranean?
Fear of Islamic domination caused Philip II of Spain to pursue aggressive foreign policy after Turkish admiral Piyale Pasha captured the Balearic Islands in 1558. The grave threat posed by increasing Ottoman domination reversed with destruction of nearly the entire Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 under Don John of Austria.
What events led to Philip II of Spain conquering Portugal in 1580?
Young King Sebastian of Portugal died without descendants at Battle of Alcácer Quibir in 1578 triggering succession crisis that allowed Philip II of Spain to claim the throne. Philip marched into Portugal defeating Prior António's troops in Battle of Alcântara in 1580 before being crowned Philip I of Portugal on the 17th of July 1580 recognized by Cortes of Tomar.
How did Philip II of Spain die and what were his final activities as King of Spain?
Philip II of Spain died on the 13th of September 1598 at El Escorial aged 71 after prolonged illness likely cancer surrounded by priests family and trusted officials. His personal chamber was divided into main room bedroom study oratory following layout monastery father where he continued review state papers correspondence despite severe pain during final months.