Charlemagne
Charlemagne's year of birth remains uncertain, though most scholars now accept 748 as the correct date. Einhard, his biographer, claimed Charlemagne was 72 years old when he died in 814, which would suggest a birth year of 742. However, modern historians like Karl Ferdinand Werner and Matthias Becher have challenged this older tradition. They point to evidence suggesting that the annalists recorded the start of the year from Easter rather than January 1st. This calendar difference shifts the actual birth date to April 748. The Lorsch Abbey commemorated his birthday on the 2nd of April from the mid-9th century, lending weight to the later date. His place of birth is equally unknown, with suggestions ranging from Vaires-sur-Marne to Herstal. Pepin the Short held an assembly in Düren in 748, but there is no proof it occurred in April or if Bertrada was present. This uncertainty surrounding his origins contrasts sharply with the certainty of his future power.
In summer 782, Widukind returned from Denmark to attack Frankish positions in Saxony. He defeated a Frankish army, possibly due to rivalry among the counts leading it. Charlemagne came to Verden after learning of the defeat, but Widukind fled before his arrival. The annals record that Charlemagne had 4,500 Saxon prisoners beheaded in the Massacre of Verden. Although some figures may be exaggerated, the basic truth of the event is not in doubt. Alessandro Barbero calls it perhaps the greatest stain on his reputation. Charlemagne issued the Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae immediately after the massacre. This harsh set of laws included the death penalty for pagan practices and aimed at suppressing Saxon identity. For the next several years, Charlemagne focused on completing the subjugation of the Saxons. His armies seized wealth and carried Saxon captives into slavery. Unusually, he campaigned through the winter instead of resting his troops. By 785, he had suppressed resistance and commanded Westphalia completely. That summer, he met Widukind and persuaded him to end his resistance. Widukind agreed to be baptised with Charlemagne as his godfather.
On Christmas Day 800, Pope Leo III proclaimed Charlemagne emperor of the Romans inside St. Peter's Basilica. He crowned him emperor governing the Roman empire, a title distinct from the earlier form used by previous kings. Contemporary sources differ on whether Charlemagne knew about the plan beforehand. Einhard wrote that Charlemagne would not have entered the church if he knew, though modern historians debate this claim. The coronation marked the first time an emperor ruled from the west since Romulus Augustulus in 476. It created immediate conflict with the Eastern Roman Empire in Constantinople. Empress Irene had seized the throne from her son Constantine VI in 797. Her gender and means of accession caused opposition in Constantinople. Some narrative sources presented a female ruler as a vacancy justifying Leo's action. However, other historians argue the coronation was not explained solely by the presence of a woman in power. Leo sought to increase his standing after political difficulties and secure Charlemagne as a powerful ally. The Byzantine Empire lacked ability to influence events in Italy or support the papacy at that moment. This event set the stage for centuries of ideological conflict known as the problem of two emperors.
Charlemagne left Italy in the summer of 801 after adjudicating ecclesiastical disputes in Rome. He never returned to the city again. From Aachen, he governed with more sedentary rule than before. The relative peace allowed attention on internal governance. In 802, the Capitulare missorum generale reformed royal administration. Officials were assigned in pairs, one cleric and one lay aristocrat, to administer justice. They oversaw governance in defined territories across the empire. Charlemagne also ordered revision of Frankish legal codes. Intellectual life at court became dominated by scholars from Ireland, Anglo-Saxon England, Visigothic Spain, and Italy. Dungal of Bobbio, Alcuin of York, Theodulf of Orléans, and Peter of Pisa worked alongside Franks like Einhard. Students learned basic Latin literacy, grammar, arithmetic, and other liberal arts subjects. Scriptoria in monasteries focused on copying new and old works. An estimated 90,000 manuscripts were produced during the 9th century alone. The Carolingian minuscule script was developed and popularised, influencing Renaissance typefaces. This educational revival created a second language community of speakers and writers beyond the former Roman Empire.
Charlemagne sent envoys to Constantinople in 810 to make peace, giving up claims to Veneto. He initiated diplomatic contact with Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid during the 790s due to mutual interest in Spanish affairs. As an early sign of friendship, Charlemagne requested an elephant as a gift from Harun. Harun later provided an elephant named Abul-Abbas, which arrived at Aachen in 802. Harun also sought to undermine Charlemagne's relations with Byzantines by giving him nominal rule of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. According to Einhard, Charlemagne zealously strove to make friendships with kings beyond the seas. He wanted help for Christians living under their rule. A surviving administrative document called the Basel roll shows work done by his agents in Palestine. Harun's death led to a succession crisis where churches and synagogues were destroyed in the caliphate. Unable to intervene directly, Charlemagne sent specially-minted coins and arms to eastern Christians. These coins served as important tools of imperial propaganda. Deteriorating relations with Baghdad after Harun's death may have impetus for renewed negotiations with Constantinople.
Scandinavia had been brought into contact with the Frankish world through wars with Saxons. Raids on Charlemagne's lands by Danes began around 800. Danish King Gudfred offered to meet with Charlemagne to arrange peace in 801. Talks failed, and northern frontier remained quiet until 808. Gudfred and allied Slavic tribes led an incursion into Obotrite lands that year. Charles the Younger led an army across the Elbe but only attacked some allies. Gudfred attempted diplomatic overtures again in 809 without success. Danish pirates raided Frisia in 810, though connection to Gudfred remains uncertain. Charlemagne sent an army to secure Frisia while leading force against Gudfred himself. Gudfred was murdered by two of his own men before Charlemagne arrived. His successor Hemming sued for peace immediately. A commission led by Wala reached a settlement with Danes in 811. The Carolingian dynasty experienced several losses in 810 and 811 when sister Gisela, daughter Rotrude, and sons Pepin the Hunchback and Pepin of Italy died. These deaths left plans for succession in disarray. He declared Bernard ruler of Italy and made Louis heir to rest of empire.
Charlemagne became ill in autumn 813 and spent last months praying, fasting, and studying gospels. He developed pleurisy and was bedridden for seven days before dying on morning of the 28th of January 814. Thegan records emperor's last words as Into your hands, Lord, I commend my spirit. His body was prepared and buried in chapel at Aachen that day. Louis arrived 30 days after father's death, taking charge of palace and empire. His reign marked by strife including rebellions by sons. After Louis' death, empire divided among sons into West, East, and Middle Francia by Treaty of Verdun. Otto the Great conquered Italy and crowned emperor in 962, founding Holy Roman Empire lasting until 1806. Charlemagne is often known as father of Europe because influence spans large continental area. Political structures established remained place through Carolingian successors into 11th century. He was ancestor of several European ruling houses including Capetian dynasty and Ottonian dynasty. German and French rulers such as Frederick Barbarossa and Napoleon cited his influence. Since 1949 Aachen has awarded international prize Karlspreis der Stadt Aachen annually to promote European unity. Recipients include Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi and Winston Churchill.
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Common questions
When was Charlemagne born and why is the date uncertain?
Most scholars accept 748 as the correct birth year, though Einhard claimed he died at age 72 in 814 suggesting 742. Modern historians like Karl Ferdinand Werner and Matthias Becher argue that annalists recorded the start of the year from Easter rather than January 1st shifting the actual birth date to April 748.
What happened during the Massacre of Verden in summer 782?
Charlemagne had 4,500 Saxon prisoners beheaded after Widukind defeated a Frankish army in Saxony. He issued the Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae immediately which included the death penalty for pagan practices to suppress Saxon identity.
Who crowned Charlemagne emperor on Christmas Day 800 and where did it happen?
Pope Leo III proclaimed Charlemagne emperor of the Romans inside St. Peter's Basilica on Christmas Day 800. This coronation marked the first time an emperor ruled from the west since Romulus Augustulus in 476 and created immediate conflict with the Eastern Roman Empire in Constantinople.
How many manuscripts were produced during the Carolingian Renaissance in the 9th century?
An estimated 90,000 manuscripts were produced during the 9th century alone as scriptoria in monasteries focused on copying new and old works. The Carolingian minuscule script was developed and popularised influencing Renaissance typefaces while students learned basic Latin literacy grammar arithmetic and other liberal arts subjects.
What gift did Harun al-Rashid send to Charlemagne that arrived at Aachen in 802?
Harun al-Rashid provided an elephant named Abul-Abbas which arrived at Aachen in 802 after Charlemagne requested it as an early sign of friendship. Harun also sought to undermine Charlemagne's relations with Byzantines by giving him nominal rule of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.
When did Charlemagne die and who succeeded him as ruler of the empire?
Charlemagne died on the morning of the 28th of January 814 after developing pleurisy and being bedridden for seven days. Louis arrived 30 days after his father's death taking charge of the palace and empire before it was divided among sons into West East and Middle Francia by Treaty of Verdun.