Seven Years' War
In 1756, the world of European power shifted overnight. Austria and France, long-standing enemies, signed the Treaty of Versailles on May 1st to defend each other with 24,000 troops. This agreement ended centuries of rivalry between Vienna and Paris. The Diplomatic Revolution had begun in secret meetings where King Louis XV pursued personal political goals through a network of agents known as the Cabinet Secret. These agents operated independently of France's foreign minister to achieve objectives like securing the Polish crown for Prince Louis François de Bourbon. Meanwhile, Prussia's Frederick II faced threats from Russia and Austria. Empress Elizabeth of Russia had signed a defensive alliance with Austria on the 2nd of June 1746, promising to restore Silesia to Austria if they fought Prussia. Alexey Bestuzhev-Ryumin, grand chancellor of Russia from 1744 to 1758, could not persuade Austrian statesman Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz to commit to offensive designs against Prussia while Prussia relied on French support. Britain concluded a treaty with Prussia on the 16th of January 1756, called the Convention of Westminster. This agreement promised mutual aid but proved catalytic for other powers. Empress Elizabeth expressed outrage at British duplicity. France felt terrified by the sudden betrayal by its only ally, Prussia. Austria used this situation to their utmost advantage. Isolated France was forced to accept the Austro-Russian alliance or face ruin.
The boundary between British and French possessions in North America remained largely undefined during the 1750s. France claimed the entire Mississippi River basin, which Britain disputed. In the early 1750s, French forces began constructing forts in the Ohio River Valley to assert their claim and shield Native Americans from increasing British influence. The most important French fort planned occupied a position at the Forks where Allegheny and Monongahela rivers meet to form the Ohio River in present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Peaceful British attempts to halt construction failed. The French built Fort Duquesne. British colonial militia from Virginia accompanied Chief Tanacharison and Mingo warriors ambushed a small French force at Jumonville Glen on the 28th of May 1754. They killed ten men including commander Joseph Coulon de Jumonville. The French retaliated by attacking Washington's army at Fort Necessity on the 3rd of July 1754, forcing surrender. These were the first engagements of what became the worldwide Seven Years' War. Major General Edward Braddock led about 2,000 regular troops and provincial militia on an expedition to retake Fort Duquesne but suffered disastrous defeat. Admiral Edward Boscawen fired on the French ship Alcide on the 8th of June 1755, capturing it and two troop ships. In September 1755, British colonial and French troops met in the inconclusive Battle of Lake George. The British navy harassed French shipping beginning in August 1755, seizing hundreds of ships and capturing thousands of merchant seamen even though both nations were nominally at peace.
Frederick II of Prussia received reports of clashes in North America and formed an alliance with Great Britain. On the 29th of August 1756, he led Prussian troops across the border of Saxony, one of the small German states in league with Austria. He intended this as a bold pre-emption of an anticipated Austro-French invasion of Silesia. Frederick had three goals: seize Saxony and eliminate it as a threat, advance into Bohemia to set up winter quarters at Austria's expense, and invade Moravia from Silesia to seize Olmütz and force an end to war. At the Battle of Lobositz on the 1st of October 1756, Frederick stumbled into one of the embarrassments of his career. Severely underestimating a reformed Austrian army under General Maximilian Ulysses Browne, he found himself outmanoeuvred and outgunned. Even in confusion, he ordered his troops to fire on retreating Prussian cavalry. Frederick actually fled the field leaving Field Marshall Keith in command. The Prussians then occupied Saxony; after the siege of Pirna, the Saxon army surrendered in October 1756 and was forcibly incorporated into the Prussian army. The attack on neutral Saxony caused outrage across Europe and strengthened the anti-Prussian coalition. On the 5th of November 1757, Frederick devastated Soubise's forces at the Battle of Rossbach. Franco-Reichsarmee lost about 10,000 killed while Prussia lost only 548 men. Five days later, on the 5th of December 1757, Frederick routed a vastly superior Austrian force at the Battle of Leuthen. He always called Leuthen his greatest victory.
Great Britain gained enormous areas of land and influence at the expense of French and Spanish Empires during the war. In 1759, British forces defeated the French in defense of New France with the fall of Quebec. The buffer that French North America had provided to New Spain, the Spanish Empire's most important overseas holding, was now lost. Spain entered the war after the Third Family Compact on the 15th of August 1761, with France. The British Royal Navy took French Caribbean sugar colonies of Guadeloupe in 1759 and Martinique in 1762. They also captured Havana in Cuba and Manila in the Philippines, both major Spanish colonial cities. British attempts at expansion into hinterlands of Cuba and Philippines met stiff resistance. In the Philippines, British were confined to Manila until their agreed withdrawal at war's end. Over the course of the war, Great Britain gained territory across India, North America, Europe, West Indies, Philippines, and coastal Africa. France lost its possessions in North America while Britain established commercial dominance in India. Spain unsuccessfully invaded Portugal but lost Havana and Manila to Britain. These territories were returned under Treaty of Paris in 1763.
Eighteenth-century European armies built around units of massed infantry armed with smoothbore flintlock muskets and bayonets. Cavalrymen equipped with sabres and pistols or carbines; light cavalry used principally for reconnaissance, screening and tactical communications. Heavy cavalry deployed as tactical reserves for shock attacks. Smoothbore artillery provided fire support and played leading role in siege warfare. Strategic warfare centred on control of key fortifications positioned so as to command surrounding regions and roads. Lengthy sieges common feature of armed conflict. Decisive field battles relatively rare. Military logistics decisive factor in many wars as armies grown too large to support themselves on prolonged campaigns by foraging and plunder alone. Supplies stored in centralised magazines distributed by baggage trains highly vulnerable to enemy raids. Armies generally unable to sustain combat operations during winter normally establishing winter quarters in cold season resuming campaigns with return of spring. Russian quartermaster's department had not improved so same problems reoccurred in Prussia. Russians lacked quartermaster's department capable of keeping armies operating in Central Europe properly supplied over primitive mud roads of eastern Europe. Tendency of Russian armies to break off operations after fighting major battle even when not defeated less about casualties more about supply lines.
By 1763 war in central Europe essentially stalemate between Prussia and Austria. Prussia retaken nearly all Silesia from Austrians after Frederick narrow victory over Daun at Battle of Burkersdorf. His brother Henry won victory in Saxony at Battle of Freiberg on the 29th of October 1762. Frederick held most of Saxony but not its capital Dresden. Financial situation not dire but kingdom devastated army severely weakened. Manpower dramatically decreased lost so many effective officers and generals offensive against Dresden seemed impossible. British subsidies stopped by new prime minister John Stuart Lord Bute. Russian emperor overthrown by wife Catherine who ended Russia alliance with Prussia withdrew from war. In 1763 peace settlement reached Treaty of Hubertusburg. Glatz returned to Prussia exchange for Prussian evacuation of Saxony. This ended war in central Europe. Stalemate really reached by 1759-1760. Prussia and Austria nearly out of money. Materiel both sides largely consumed. Maria Theresa had pawned jewels in 1758 approved public subscription for support urged public bring silver to mint. French subsidies no longer provided. She dismissed some men because too expensive feed them. Britain declared war against Spain the 4th of January 1762; Spain reacted issuing own declaration January 18th. Portugal followed joining war Britain side.
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Common questions
What was the Treaty of Versailles signed on May 1st 1756?
Austria and France signed the Treaty of Versailles on the 1st of May 1756 to defend each other with 24,000 troops. This agreement ended centuries of rivalry between Vienna and Paris.
When did the Seven Years' War begin in North America?
The first engagements of what became the worldwide Seven Years' War occurred on the 28th of May 1754 at Jumonville Glen. These clashes involved British colonial militia from Virginia accompanied by Chief Tanacharison and Mingo warriors ambushing a small French force.
Why did Frederick II of Prussia attack Saxony on August 29th 1756?
Frederick II led Prussian troops across the border of Saxony on the 29th of August 1756 as a bold pre-emption of an anticipated Austro-French invasion of Silesia. He intended this action to seize Saxony and eliminate it as a threat while advancing into Bohemia to set up winter quarters at Austria's expense.
Which territories did Great Britain gain during the Seven Years' War?
Great Britain gained territory across India, North America, Europe, West Indies, Philippines, and coastal Africa during the war. They captured French Caribbean sugar colonies of Guadeloupe in 1759 and Martinique in 1762 along with Havana in Cuba and Manila in the Philippines.
How were eighteenth-century European armies equipped for battle?
Eighteenth-century European armies built around units of massed infantry armed with smoothbore flintlock muskets and bayonets. Cavalrymen were equipped with sabres and pistols or carbines while heavy cavalry deployed as tactical reserves for shock attacks.