Iberian Peninsula

• 1. Etymological Origins And Ancient Names

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  The River Ebro, known as Ibēros in ancient Greek and Ibērus or Hibērus in Latin, anchors the very name of this landmass. Strabo described the region simply as "this side of the Ibērus," a phrase so common that geographers rarely felt the need to elaborate further. Pliny the Elder went even farther, asserting that Greeks called the entire peninsula Hiberia solely because of the river's presence. The earliest written record of this boundary appears in the Ebro Treaty of 226 BCE between Rome and Carthage, which set the limit of Carthaginian interest at the Ebro. Polybius noted that the native name was likely Ibēr, stripped of its Greek or Latin endings. This linguistic root remains tied to the waterway itself rather than any specific people. Geographers place the early range of these natives from present-day southern Spain to southern France along the Mediterranean coast. Instances of a readable script expressing an unknown language, dubbed Iberian, mark this territory. Whether this was the native name given by the Greeks for their residence near the Ebro remains unknown. In modern Basque, the word ibar means valley or watered meadow, while ibai means river, yet no proof connects these names directly to Ebro or Iberia. The ancient Greeks reached the peninsula by voyaging westward on the Mediterranean after hearing about it from Phoenicians. Herodotus of Halicarnassus credited the Phocaeans with making the Greeks acquainted with Iberia. Early Roman literature mentions the region through annalist poet Ennius in 200 BCE. Virgil wrote of restless Iberi in his Georgics. Roman geographers used Hispania and Hiberia as synonyms due to overlapping political and geographic perspectives. The Latin word Hiberia literally translates to land of the Hiberians, derived from the river now called Ebro. Jews have used the name Sepharad for the peninsula since Roman antiquity. The modern phrase Iberian Peninsula was coined by French geographer Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent in his 1823 work Guide du Voyageur en Espagne. Prior to that date, geographers had used terms like Spanish Peninsula or Pyrenaean Peninsula.

• 2. Prehistoric Inhabitants And Early Cultures

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  The Atapuerca Mountains hold remains proving human habitation for at least 1.2 million years. Six hominin skeletons dated between 780,000 and one million years ago were found in 1994 within the cave of Gran Dolina. Experts debate whether these belong to Homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis, or a new species named Homo antecessor. Neanderthals entered the peninsula around 200,000 BP during the Lower Paleolithic period. A last glacial event began around 70,000 BP, establishing the Neanderthal Mousterian culture. The Neanderthal Châtelperronian cultural period started around 37,000 BP, extending into northern areas from Southern France until about 30,000 BP when Neanderthal man faced extinction. Anatomically modern humans arrived approximately 40,000 years ago across the Pyrenees. These people developed cultures such as Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean, and Magdalenian, some featuring complex Upper Paleolithic art. During the Neolithic expansion, megalithic cultures emerged alongside Cardium culture influence reaching eastern coasts possibly as early as the 5th millennium BCE. Early European Farmers form the principal ancestral origin of modern Iberians. Y-Chromosome Haplogroup R1b dominance testifies to input from Western Steppe Herders during the Bronze Age. This genetic turnover replaced 100% of paternal ancestry and 40% of overall ancestry with steppe-related peoples. Complex Chalcolithic cultures arose around 3000 BCE creating exchange networks reaching the Baltic, Middle East, and North Africa. The Beaker culture likely originated in copper-using communities of the Tagus estuary around 2800, 2700 BCE before spreading westward. The Bronze Age began on the peninsula in 2100 cal BC according to radiocarbon dating. Culture of Los Millares was followed by that of El Argar starting around 1800 BCE. Southeastern Iberia saw important settlements emerge indicating state-level social structures. Bronze metalworking technology spread to other cultures like Bronze of Levante, South-Western Iberian Bronze, and Las Cogotas. The Argaric culture flourished from 2200 BC to 1550 BC before depopulation ensued. Ecological degradation, fires, pastoralism, and tree cutting for mining contributed to its collapse. Motillas developed an early groundwater supply system in the upper Guadiana basin amid extreme aridification following the 4.2-kiloyear climatic event.

• 3. Roman Conquest And Imperial Administration

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  First Roman troops occupied the Iberian Peninsula known as Hispania during the Second Punic War against Carthaginians in 218 BCE. After 197, territories most accustomed to external contact divided into Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior. A 195 Roman campaign under Cato the Elder ravaged resistance hotspots in the northeastern Ebro Valley. Further wars of indigenous resistance included Celtiberian Wars and Lusitanian War fought throughout the 2nd century. Urban growth occurred as populations moved from hillforts to plains. Mining extractive processes increased dramatically after conquest requiring massive forced labor initially from Hispania then Gallic borderlands and Mediterranean locations. Atmospheric pollution levels from mining across the Mediterranean during Classical Antiquity had no match until the Industrial Revolution. The region supplied gold, silver, copper, lead, and cinnabar alongside manufactured goods like sigillata pottery and colorless glass. Rural products included fish sauce garum, wheat, esparto, olive oil, and wine. Civil wars between Roman republic rulers played out on the peninsula including Sertorian War and conflict between Caesar and Pompey later in the first century BC. Latin language developed into modern Iberian languages except for Basque preserved by Pyrenees barrier. The process of Romanization spurred on throughout the first century BC. Local rebellions were quelled while urban traditions strengthened along Mediterranean coast and Guadalquivir Valley. Economic exploitation drove environmental outcomes far beyond immediate borders. Population shifts reflected changing political landscapes across centuries of occupation.

• 4. Medieval Religious Conflicts And Reconquista

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  Germanic peoples occupied the peninsula in early fifth century including Suebi, Vandals, Alans, and Visigoths. Only Suebi kingdom endured after arrival of another wave of Germanic invaders called Visigoths who expelled or partially integrated others. Visigoths eventually occupied Suebi capital Bracara modern day Braga in 584, 585. They also took Byzantine province Spania south of peninsula lasting from 552 to 624. Balearic Islands remained under Byzantine control until Umayyad conquest began in 703 CE completed in 902 CE. A Muslim army conquered Visigothic Kingdom in Hispania in 711 landing at Gibraltar under Tariq ibn Ziyad. An eight-year campaign occupied all except northern kingdoms completing Umayyad conquest of Hispania. Al-Andalus became Arabic name for Muslim Iberia possibly meaning Land of the Vandals. Conversion and arabization of Hispano-Roman population followed conquest with muwalladum or Muladí becoming majority by 9th and 10th centuries. Muslims referred generically as Moors divided per ethnicity into Arabs Berbers and Muladí. Arab supremacy over other groups caused recurrent strife particularly between Arabs and Berbers. Christians and Jews lived under dhimmah system though Jews gained importance in certain fields. Some Christians migrated north while staying ones progressively arabised becoming musta'arab or mozarabs. Slave population included Šaqāliba literally meaning slavs though they were slaves of generic European origin plus Sudanese slaves. Major Berber Revolt broke out early 740s originally in Tangier spreading across peninsula. Western province al-Andalus became politically autonomous independent emirate in 756 ruled by Abd al-Rahman I. Caliphate reached height power under Abd-ar-Rahman III and successor al-Hakam II viewed Jaime Vicens Vives most powerful state Europe. Córdoba reached population 100,000 by 10th century Toledo 30,000 by 11th century Seville 80,000 by 12th century. North housed many small Christian polities including Kingdom Castile Aragon Navarre León Portugal plus counties from Carolingian Marca Hispanica. Christian kingdoms progressively expanded south taking Muslim territory known historiographically Reconquista latter concept product claim pre-existing Spanish Catholic nation not necessarily conveying complexity centuries warring peaceable interactions Muslim Christian kingdoms medieval Iberia between 711 and 1492.

• 5. Age Of Exploration And Global Empires

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  Portugal initiated overseas expansion parallel rise House Aviz conquering Ceuta 1415 arriving Porto Santo 1418 Madeira Azores establishing additional outposts along North-African Atlantic coast. Between completion Granada War 1492 death Ferdinand Aragon 1516 Hispanic Monarchy made strides imperial expansion Mediterranean coast Maghreb. Last Muslim stronghold Granada conquered combined Castilian Aragonese force 1492. As many as 100,000 Moors died enslaved military campaign while 200,000 fled North Africa. Muslims Jews throughout period variously tolerated shown intolerance different Christian kingdoms. After fall Granada all Muslims Jews ordered convert Christianity face expulsion. As many as 200,000 Jews expelled Spain. Approximately 3,000,000 Muslims fled driven Spain 1492, 1610. Henry Kamen estimates some 25,000 Jews died en route from Spain. Jews also expelled Sicily Sardinia under Aragonese rule estimated 37,000 to 100,000 left. King Manuel I Portugal forced all Jews kingdom convert leave 1497 same year expelled Muslims not slaves 1502 Catholic Monarchs followed suit imposing choice conversion exile loss property. Many Jews Muslims fled North Africa Ottoman Empire others publicly converted Christianity known Marranos Moriscos old term Moors. Moriscos continued practice religion secret revolted times ultimately forcibly expelled early 17th century. From 1609 to 1614 over 300,000 Moriscos sent ships North Africa locations figure around 50,000 died resisting expulsion 60,000 died journey. Change relative supremacy Portugal Hispanic Monarchy late 15th century few cases avoidance Thucydides Trap according Belfer Center Science International Affairs Harvard University case studies. During 16th century Spain created vast empire Americas state monopoly Seville center ensuing transatlantic trade based bullion. Iberian imperialism starting Portuguese routes Asia posterior transatlantic trade New World Spaniards Portuguese Dutch English French precipitated economic decline Italian Peninsula. 16th century one population growth increased pressure resources part population moved Americas meanwhile Jews Moriscos banished relocating Mediterranean Basin. Roughly 300,000 Moriscos expelled country 1609, 1614 emigrated mass North Africa. In 1580 political crisis following 1578 death King Sebastian Portugal became dynastic composite entity Hapsburg Monarchy whole peninsula united politically period known Iberian Union 1580, 1640. During reign Philip II Spain I Portugal Councils Portugal Italy Flanders Burgundy added group counselling institutions Hispanic Monarchy defining organization Royal court underpinned Polysynodial System through which empire operated. First great wave transatlantic slave trade happened Enriqueta Vila Villar new markets opened unification gave thrust slave trade.

• 6. Modern Geography And Geological Structure

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  Iberian Peninsula westernmost three major southern European peninsulas Iberian Italian Balkan forms westernmost portion larger Eurasian landmass. Bordered southeast east Mediterranean Sea north west southwest Atlantic Ocean. Pyrenees mountains situated northeast edge peninsula adjoins rest Europe. Southern tip located Tarifa southernmost point European continent very close northwest coast Africa separated Strait Gibraltar Mediterranean Sea. Peninsula encompasses 583,254 km² very contrasting uneven topography. Mountain ranges distributed west east some cases reach altitudes approximately 3,000 mamsl resulting region second highest mean altitude 637 mamsl Western Europe. Extends southernmost extremity Punta de Tarifa northernmost extremity Punta de Estaca de Bares distance lines latitude about based degree length per degree. Westernmost extremity Cabo da Roca easternmost extremity Cap de Creus distance lines longitude 40° N latitude about based estimated degree length about for that latitude. Irregular roughly octagonal shape compared ancient geographer Strabo ox-hide III.1.3. About three quarters rough octagon Meseta Central vast plateau ranging 610 to 760 m altitude located center staggered slightly east tilted slightly toward west. Conventional centre long considered Getafe just south Madrid ringed mountains contains sources most rivers find way gaps mountain barriers sides. Coastline total length split Mediterranean side Atlantic side figures sum Wikipedia articles geography Spain Portugal. Most Internet source figures include island coastlines owned countries thus unreliable guide coastline peninsula. Length coastline may vary significantly depending where measured. Coast inundated time sea levels risen minimum lower today Last Glacial Maximum LGM current level 4,000 years BP. Coastal shelf created sedimentation time remains below surface never very extensive Atlantic side continental shelf drops steeply depths. Estimated length Atlantic shelf only wide. At isobath edge shelf drops Bay Biscay north Iberian abyssal plain west Tagus abyssal plain south. Submarine topography coastal waters extensively studied process drilling oil. Extension called Galicia Bank plateau contains Porto Vigo Vasco da Gama seamounts form Galicia interior basin. Southern border features marked Nazaré Canyon splits continental shelf leads directly into abyss. Major rivers flow wide valleys between mountain systems Ebro Douro Tagus Guadiana Guadalquivir. All rivers subject seasonal variations flow. Tagus longest river peninsula like Douro flows westwards lower course Portugal. Guadiana river bends southwards forms border Spain Portugal last stretch course.

• 7. Contemporary Politics And Economic Integration

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  Current political configuration bulk Portugal Spain whole landlocked microstate Andorra small part French department Pyrénées-Orientales French Cerdagne British Overseas Territory Gibraltar. French Cerdagne south side Pyrenees mountain range runs along border France Spain. Segre river runs west then south meet Ebro source French side. Pyrenees range often considered northeastern boundary Iberian Peninsula though French coastline curves away rest Europe north range reason Perpignan known capital Northern Catalonia often considered entrance Iberian Peninsula. Countries territories include Andorra Andorra la Vella 0.1% area French Cerdagne Font-Romeu-Odeillo-Via 0.1% Gibraltar Gibraltar 0.0% Portugal mainland Lisbon 15.3% Spain mainland Madrid 84.5%. Total 100%. Iberian city network dominated three international metropolises Barcelona Lisbon Madrid four regional metropolises Bilbao Porto Seville Valencia. Relatively weak integration network favors competitive approach vis-à-vis inter-relation different centers. Among these metropolises Madrid stands out global urban hierarchy terms status major service center enjoys greatest degree connectivity. Metropolitan regions population over one million listed Eurostat 2019 Madrid Spain Barcelona Spain Lisbon Portugal Valencia Spain Seville Spain Alicante-Elche-Elda Spain Porto Portugal Málaga-Marbella Spain Murcia-Cartagena Spain Cádiz Spain Bilbao Spain Oviedo-Gijón Spain. Official currency across Iberia Euro exception Gibraltar uses Gibraltar Pound parity Sterling. Major industries mining tourism small farms fishing. Coast long popular sardines tuna anchovies. Most mining occurs Pyrenees mountains commodities mined iron gold coal lead silver zinc salt. Microstate Andorra British Overseas Territory Gibraltar described tax havens role global economy. Galician region Spain north-west Iberian Peninsula became biggest entry points cocaine Europe par Dutch ports. Hashish smuggled Morocco Strait Gibraltar. Both Spain Portugal traditionally used non-standard rail gauge 1,668 mm Iberian gauge since construction first railroads 19th century. Spain progressively introduced 1,435 mm standard gauge new high-speed rail network one most extensive world inaugurated 1992 Madrid, Seville line followed Madrid, Barcelona 2008 Madrid, Valencia 2010 Alicante branch latter 2013 connection France Barcelona line. Portugal suspended all high-speed rail projects wake 2008 financial crisis putting end time possibility high-speed rail connection Lisbon Porto Madrid. Handicapped Pyrenees mountain range hindering connection rest Europe Spain subsidiarily Portugal only two meaningful rail connections France able freight transport located both ends mountain range. International rail line Central Pyrenees linking Zaragoza French city Pau tunnel existed past accident French part destroyed stretch railroad 1970 Canfranc Station cul-de-sac since then. Four points connecting Portuguese Spanish rail networks Valença do Minho, Tui Vilar Formoso, Fuentes de Oñoro Marvão-Beirã, Valencia de Alcántara Elvas, Badajoz. Prospect development European-wide effort Central Mediterranean Atlantic rail corridors expected improve competitiveness ports Tarragona Valencia Sagunto Bilbao Santander Sines Algeciras vis-à-vis rest Europe World. In 1980 Morocco Spain started joint study feasibility fixed link tunnel bridge Strait Gibraltar possibly through connection km Cape Malabata Years studies made real progress thus far. Transit point many submarine cables Fibre-optic Link Around Globe Europe India Gateway SEA-ME-WE 3 feature landing stations Iberian Peninsula. West Africa Cable System Main One SAT-3/WASC Africa Coast to Europe land Portugal. MAREA high capacity communication transatlantic cable connects north Iberian Peninsula Bilbao North America Virginia Grace Hopper upcoming cable connecting Iberian Peninsula Bilbao UK US intended operative 2022 EllaLink upcoming high-capacity communication cable expected connect Peninsula Sines South America mammoth 2Africa project intends connect peninsula United Kingdom Europe Africa via Portugal Barcelona 2023, 24. Two gas pipelines Pedro Duran Farell pipeline more recently Medgaz respectively Morocco Algeria link Maghreb Iberian Peninsula providing Spain Algerian natural gas. Contract first pipeline expires the 31st of October 2021 amidst tense climate Algerian Moroccan relations plans renew it.