Sultan
The Arabic root word sala ta means to be hard or strong. This verbal noun evolved into the abstract concept of sul tan, which initially designated moral authority rather than political power. The Qur'an uses this term several times to describe spiritual strength. In the early Muslim world, ultimate power theoretically resided with the caliph. Local governors held administrative authority as amirs appointed by the caliph. By the 9th century, some of these governors became de facto independent rulers. They founded dynasties like the Aghlabids and Tulunids. Towards the late 10th century, the term began denoting an individual ruler with practically sovereign authority. The first major figure to clearly grant himself this title was Mahmud of Ghazni. He ruled from 998 to 1030 CE over present-day Afghanistan and surrounding regions. Soon after, the Great Seljuks adopted this title after defeating the Ghaznavid Empire. Their leader Tughril Bey was the first to adopt the epithet sultan on his coinage. The Seljuks acknowledged the caliphs in Baghdad formally as universal leaders while their own political power overshadowed them. Muslim scholars like Al-Juwayni and Al-Ghazali developed theoretical justifications for this arrangement. They argued that legitimate authority derived from the caliph but was delegated to sovereign rulers recognized by him.
The position of sultan grew in importance during the period of the crusades. Leaders holding the title such as Salah ad-Din led confrontations against crusader states in the Levant. Views about the office further developed following the destruction of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258. This event eliminated remnants of Abbasid political power. Surviving descendants of the Abbasid caliphs lived in Cairo under Mamluk protection. From this time on they effectively had no authority and were not universally recognized across the Sunni Muslim world. The Mamluks recognized themselves as sultans while protecting the line of the Abbasid caliphs. Khalil al-Zahiri argued that only they could hold that title. Nonetheless, many Muslim rulers used the title as well including Mongol rulers who converted to Islam. The position of sultan and caliph began blending together in the 16th century when the Ottoman Empire conquered the Mamluk Empire. Ebüssuûd Mehmet Efendi recognized the Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent as the caliph and universal leader of all Muslims. This conflation became more clearly emphasized in the 19th century during territorial decline. Ottoman authorities sought to cast the sultan as leader of the entire Muslim community facing European colonial expansion. It was claimed that Sultan Selim I captured Cairo in 1517 and received the position of caliph from the last descendant of the Abbasids.
A feminine form of sultan is sultana or sultanah used by Westerners for some Muslim women monarchs. Turkish and Ottoman Turkish also uses sultan for imperial ladies since grammar uses same words for both genders. Hurrem Sultan and Sultan Suleiman Han appear alongside each other in historical records. Female leaders in Muslim history are correctly known as sultanas. However the wife of the sultan in the Sultanate of Sulu is styled panguian. The sultan's chief wife in many sultanates of Indonesia and Malaysia are known as permaisuri, Tunku Ampuan, Raja Perempuan, or Tengku Ampuan. By the beginning of the 16th century the title sultan was carried by both men and women of the Ottoman dynasty. It replaced other titles notably khatun for women and bey for men. This usage underscores the Ottoman conception of sovereign power as family prerogative. The evolving usage reflected power shifts among imperial women especially between the Sultanate of Women. As the position of main consort eroded over the course of the 17th century it lost the title of sultan. That title was replaced by kadin related to earlier khatun. Henceforth the mother of the reigning sultan was the only person of non-imperial blood to carry the title sultan.
Sultanates spread across Africa Asia and the Middle East with varying degrees of sovereignty. In Iran the Safavid dynasty controlled the largest Shi'a Muslim state using Persian title shah instead. Provincial governors within their realm received the term sultan mainly given to them. The Ghaznavid Empire ruled present-day Afghanistan while the Great Seljuk Empire took control including Baghdad. The Mamluk Sultans governed Egypt until the Ottomans conquered Cairo in 1517. Various small sultanates existed in Yemen such as Audhali Fadhli Haushabi Kathiri Lahej Lower Aulaqi Lower Yafa Mahra Qu'aiti Subeihi Upper Aulaqi Upper Yafa and Wahidi. In Sudan Darfur Dar al-Masalit Dar Qimr Funj Sultanate of Sinnar Kordofan maintained distinct political structures. Horn of Africa hosted Ajuran Adal Isaaq Habr Yunis Majeerteen Warsangali Geledi Aussa Harar Jarso Hobyo Ifat Mogadishu Showa Bimaal and other sultanates. Southeast Africa included Angoche on Mozambiquan coast and various sultans on Comoros using styles like Mfalme Phany or Jambé. Swahili Coast featured Kilwa Sultanate where rulers were styled Maliki derived from Arabic malik. Tanzania had Hadimu rulers styled Jembe and Uhehe state used title Sultani. Cameroon contained Bamoun founded in 17th century which became a sultanate in 1918 before re-dividing into 17 chieftaincies in 1923. Chad held Baguirmi with main native title Mbang and Wada'i successor to Birgu.
Brunei Malaysia and Oman remain the only sovereign states retaining the title sultan for their monarchs. Morocco changed its style from sultan to king on the 14th of August 1957 under Mohammed V. He maintained subsidiary style Amir al-Mu'minin Commander of the Faithful. Contemporary hereditary rulers sometimes replace sultan with king to emphasize secular authority under rule of law. In Malaysia seven present sultanates exist within Peninsular Malaysia including Johor Kedah Kelantan Pahang Perak Selangur Terengganu. The ruler of Luak Jelebu holds style Sultan alongside principal title Undang Luak Jelebu. Brunei sits on Borneo island while Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah currently reigns there. Sultan Haitham bin Tariq leads Oman on southern coast of Arabian peninsula since assuming formal title in 1861. Within federal monarchies Sultan Ibrahim Ismail rules Johor while Sultan Sallehuddin governs Kedah. Sultan Muhammad V leads Kelantan and Al-Sultan Abdullah Ri'ayatuddin governs Pahang. Sultan Nazrin Shah rules Perak and Sultan Sharafuddin Idris Shah governs Selangur. Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin leads Terengganu. Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono X serves as both Sultan and Governor of Yogyakarta within Indonesia. This unique position grants executive power within a republic structure.
Common questions
What is the origin and original meaning of the word sultan?
The Arabic root word salata means to be hard or strong. This verbal noun evolved into the abstract concept of sul tan, which initially designated moral authority rather than political power.
When did the title sultan begin denoting a sovereign ruler with practical power?
Towards the late 10th century, the term began denoting an individual ruler with practically sovereign authority. The first major figure to clearly grant himself this title was Mahmud of Ghazni who ruled from 998 to 1030 CE over present-day Afghanistan and surrounding regions.
How did the relationship between the caliph and the sultan change after the destruction of Baghdad in 1258?
This event eliminated remnants of Abbasid political power and surviving descendants lived in Cairo under Mamluk protection while effectively having no authority. The Mamluks recognized themselves as sultans while protecting the line of the Abbasid caliphs and argued that only they could hold that title.
Which countries currently retain the title sultan for their monarchs today?
Brunei Malaysia and Oman remain the only sovereign states retaining the title sultan for their monarchs. Morocco changed its style from sultan to king on the 14th of August 1957 under Mohammed V.
What is the feminine form of sultan used by Westerners for Muslim women monarchs?
A feminine form of sultan is sultana or sultanah used by Westerners for some Muslim women monarchs. Turkish and Ottoman Turkish also uses sultan for imperial ladies since grammar uses same words for both genders.