Alexander the Great
In the ancient Greek month of Hekatombaion, which corresponds to the 20th of July 356 BC, a boy was born in Pella. This child would become Alexander III of Macedon. His father Philip II ruled the kingdom from this capital city. The young prince grew up surrounded by legends about his birth. Plutarch recorded that Olympias, Alexander's mother, dreamed her womb was struck by a thunderbolt before she gave birth. Another story claimed Philip saw himself sealing his wife's womb with a lion's image. These tales suggested Alexander had divine origins.
At age ten, Alexander demonstrated early courage and ambition. A trader from Thessaly brought Philip a horse named Bucephalas. The animal refused to be mounted because it feared its own shadow. Alexander noticed this fear and asked to tame the horse. He eventually managed to ride the beast. Philip watched tearfully as his son mastered the animal. He declared that Macedon was too small for such ambitions. Alexander named the horse Bucephalas, meaning ox-head. The horse carried him all the way to India.
Philip II died on the 24th day of the Macedonian month Dios, likely the 25th of October 336 BC. Alexander was proclaimed king at age twenty. He immediately faced revolts across Greece. News reached him that Thebes, Athens, and Thessaly were in rebellion. Alexander mustered three thousand Macedonian cavalry and rode south toward Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa. His men rode over Mount Ossa to appear behind their lines. The enemy surrendered instantly.
He then marched to Amphipolis and traveled east into Independent Thrace. At Mount Haemus, his forces defeated the local Thracian troops. They moved further to defeat the Triballi near the Lyginus river. Alexander crossed the Danube River at night to surprise the Getae tribe. In Illyria, he defeated chieftain Cleitus and King Glaukias of the Taulantii. These victories secured his northern borders before he could cross into Asia. The destruction of Thebes followed shortly after, cowering Athens into submission.
Alexander's army crossed the Hellespont in 334 BC with approximately forty-eight thousand soldiers. They included six thousand cavalry and a fleet of one hundred twenty ships. The invasion began with a victory against Persian forces at the Battle of Granicus. He accepted the surrender of Sardis and proceeded along the Ionian coast. Miletus required a delicate siege operation while Persian naval forces remained nearby. Halicarnassus demanded his first large-scale siege effort. He eventually forced opponents to withdraw by sea.
In spring 333 BC, Alexander crossed the Taurus mountains into Cilicia. He defeated Darius III at Issus despite being outnumbered. Darius fled the battle, leaving behind his family and a vast treasure. The following year, he attacked Tyre and captured it after a long siege. Men of military age were massacred while women and children were sold into slavery. Egypt capitulated quickly except for Gaza. After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell but left Alexander wounded on his shoulder. He marched eastward into Assyria and defeated Darius again at Gaugamela. This decisive encounter broke the power of the Achaemenid Empire.
Alexander chased Darius into Media and then Parthia before Bessus murdered him. He buried Darius's remains next to previous kings in a regal funeral. The campaign turned into a grand tour of central Asia. He founded new cities called Alexandria including modern Kandahar and Alexandria Eschate near Tajikistan. In 329 BC, Spitamenes betrayed Bessus to Ptolemy. Later, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt against Macedonian rule. Alexander personally defeated Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes.
He turned toward the Indian subcontinent in 327 BC. Ambhi, ruler of Taxila, submitted to his authority with valuable gifts. Alexander presented him with Persian robes and gold ornaments. The king divided his forces to cross the Indus River. In the winter of 327/326 BC, he campaigned against Aspasioi and Assakenoi tribes. Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart during fierce fighting. He captured the fortress of Aornos after four bloody days. At the Hydaspes River in 326 BC, he won an epic battle against King Porus.
Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther east but faced mutiny at the Hyphasis River. General Coenus pleaded for them to return home to see their parents and children. The men refused to advance further. This river marked the easternmost extent of his conquests. He turned south along the Indus River. While besieging the Mallian citadel, an arrow penetrated his armor and entered his lung. He suffered a near-fatal injury during this campaign.
In Babylon on either 10 or the 11th of June 323 BC, Alexander died at age thirty-two. Plutarch described how he entertained admiral Nearchus before developing a fever that worsened until he could not speak. Diodorus claimed he drank a large bowl of unmixed wine followed by eleven days of weakness. Various theories suggest foul play involving poison from white hellebore or water containing calicheamicin. Natural causes like typhoid fever or acute pancreatitis also fit the symptoms. His death ended plans for an invasion of Arabia and left his empire without a clear successor.
Reports of Alexander's death reached Greece but were initially disbelieved. He had no obvious heir since his son Alexander IV was born after his passing. On his deathbed, companions asked him who would inherit his kingdom. His reply was to the strongest. Another theory suggests he passed his signet ring to Perdiccas in front of witnesses. The infantry under Meleager rejected arrangements favoring Philip Arrhidaeus. Eventually, Alexander IV and Philip III became joint kings in name only.
Dissension soon affected the Macedonians. Satrapies handed out at the Partition of Babylon became power bases for generals. After Perdiccas was assassinated in 321 BC, unity collapsed. Forty years of war between the Successors ensued before three stable blocs emerged. These included Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Syria, and Antigonid Macedonia. Both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered during this struggle. The empire disintegrated into rival kingdoms that fought for dominance over former territories.
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Common questions
When was Alexander the Great born and where?
Alexander III of Macedon was born in Pella on the 20th of July 356 BC. His father Philip II ruled the kingdom from this capital city.
How did Alexander tame the horse Bucephalas at age ten?
Alexander noticed that the animal feared its own shadow and turned it toward the sun to remove the fear. He then successfully mounted the beast which he named Bucephalas meaning ox-head.
What happened when Alexander crossed into Asia in 334 BC?
His army of approximately forty-eight thousand soldiers including six thousand cavalry invaded with a fleet of one hundred twenty ships. They won the Battle of Granicus against Persian forces before capturing Sardis and proceeding along the Ionian coast.
Where did Alexander die and what were the circumstances surrounding his death?
Alexander died in Babylon on either the 10th or the 11th of June 323 BC at age thirty-two. Plutarch described how he developed a fever after entertaining admiral Nearchus while other accounts suggest poison or natural causes like typhoid fever.
Who inherited Alexander's kingdom after his death in 323 BC?
Alexander left no obvious heir since his son Alexander IV was born after his passing. His companions asked who would inherit the kingdom and he replied to the strongest while another theory suggests he passed his signet ring to Perdiccas.