Age of Discovery
In 1492, the joint rulers of Castile and Aragon conquered the Moorish kingdom of Granada. This military victory removed a source of African goods that had previously been supplied through tribute to Castile. The newly unified Spanish crown decided to fund Christopher Columbus's expedition in the hope of bypassing Portugal's monopoly on west African sea routes. They sought to reach "the Indies" by travelling west across the Atlantic Ocean. Economic growth in Iberia followed the Christian reconquest of Al-Andalus and the siege of Lisbon in 1147 AD. European powers faced constant deficits in silver and gold as it only went out for eastern trade now cut off. Several European mines were exhausted during this period. The lack of bullion led to the development of complex banking systems to manage risks in trade. The first state bank, Banco di San Giorgio, was founded in 1407 at Genoa. Genoese communities established themselves in Portugal, profiting from their enterprise and financial expertise. Religious orders such as the Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustinians, and Jesuits partook in most missionary endeavours in the New World. By the late 16th and 17th centuries, the latter's presence increased as they sought to reassert their power and revive Catholic culture. In 1487, Portuguese envoys Pero da Covilhã and Afonso de Paiva were sent on a covert mission to gather intelligence on a potential sea route to India. They also inquired about Prester John, a Nestorian patriarch believed to rule over parts of the subcontinent. Covilhã was warmly received upon his arrival in Ethiopia but forbidden from leaving. The spread of Christianity throughout Europe fueled the desire to sermonise in lands beyond. This evangelical effort became a significant part of the military conquests of European powers like Portugal, Spain, and France.
The Portuguese began systematically exploring the Atlantic coast of Africa in 1418 under the sponsorship of Prince Henry the Navigator. In 1415, Ceuta in North Africa was conquered by the Portuguese aiming to control navigation of the African coast. Young prince Henry became aware of profit possibilities in trans-Saharan trade routes. He invested in sponsoring voyages down the coast of Mauritania gathering merchants and shipowners interested in new sea lanes. Soon the Atlantic islands of Madeira in 1419 and the Azores in 1427 were reached. The expedition leader who established settlements on Madeira was explorer João Gonçalves Zarco. Europeans did not know what lay beyond Cape Non on the African coast. Nautical myths warned of monsters or an edge of the world but Henry's navigation challenged such beliefs. Starting in 1421 systematic sailing overcame these fears reaching the difficult Cape Bojador that in 1434 one of Henry's captains Gil Eanes finally passed. From 1440 caravels were extensively used for exploration of the coast of Africa. Senegal and Cape Verde Peninsula were reached in 1445 and in 1446 Álvaro Fernandes pushed on almost as far as present-day Sierra Leone. In 1453 the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans was a perceived blow to Christendom. In 1455 Pope Nicholas V issued the bull Romanus Pontifex granting all lands discovered beyond Cape Bojador to King Afonso V of Portugal. In 1460 Pedro de Sintra reached Sierra Leone. Prince Henry died in November after which exploration was granted to Lisbon merchant Fernão Gomes in 1469. With his sponsorship explorers made it beyond those goals reaching the Southern Hemisphere and islands of the Gulf of Guinea including São Tomé and Príncipe and Elmina in 1471. There in what came to be called the "Gold Coast" in today's Ghana a thriving alluvial gold trade was found among natives Arab and Berber traders. In 1482 the Congo River was explored by Diogo Cão who in 1486 continued to Cape Cross modern Namibia. The next crucial breakthrough occurred in 1488 when Bartolomeu Dias rounded the southern tip of Africa naming it Cabo das Tormentas or Cape of Storms.
In 1492 the joint rulers conquered the Moorish kingdom of Granada and decided to fund Christopher Columbus's expedition. On the 3rd of August 1492 Columbus departed from Palos de la Frontera. Land was sighted on the 12th of October and Columbus called the island San Salvador now in The Bahamas. He explored the north coast of Cuba and Hispaniola by the 5th of December. He was received by the native cacique Guacanagari who gave him permission to leave some men behind. Columbus left 39 men and founded the settlement of La Navidad in what is now Haiti. Before returning to Spain he kidnapped 10-25 natives. Only 7-8 of the 'Indians' arrived alive but they made an impression on Seville. On the 15th of March 1493 he arrived in Barcelona where he reported to Isabella and Ferdinand. Word of his discovery of new lands spread throughout Europe. In 1494 the Treaty of Tordesillas divided the world between Portugal and Spain. Portugal gained control over Africa Asia and eastern South America encompassing everything outside Europe east of a line drawn 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands. The Spanish received everything west of this line including islands discovered by Columbus on his first voyage. In 1500 Pedro Álvares Cabral initially considering the Brazilian coast as a large island claimed it for Portugal east of the dividing line. This claim was acknowledged by the Spanish. From 1511 to 1512 Portuguese captains João de Lisboa and Estevão de Fróis reached the River Plata estuary in present-day Uruguay and Argentina. They went as far south as the present-day Gulf of San Matias at 42°S. In 1519 an expedition sent by the Spanish Crown to find a way to Asia was led by the experienced Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan.
European exploration initiated the Columbian exchange between the Old World comprising Europe Asia and Africa and New World comprising Americas. This exchange involved transfer of plants animals human populations including slaves communicable diseases and culture across Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Simultaneously spread of new diseases especially affecting native Americans led to rapid declines in some populations. The era saw widespread enslavement exploitation and military conquest of indigenous peoples concurrent with growing economic influence and spread of Western culture science and technology leading to faster-than-exponential population growth worldwide. Little of the divided area had actually been seen by Europeans as it was only divided by geographical definition rather than control on ground. The desire to compete with Ottoman Empire and Columbus's first voyage spurred further maritime exploration from 1497 onward. North America That year John Cabot also commissioned Italian got letters patent from King Henry VII of England sailing from Bristol Cabot crossed Atlantic from northerly latitude hoping voyage to West Indies would be shorter. Prior to Cabot's voyage furthest European expeditions in North Atlantic had been by Norse explorers who established settlements in Newfoundland and Greenland abandoned in 11th century and mid-15th century respectively. Merchants from Bristol had sponsored exploratory voyages in 1480s which did not report anything of note.
Shortly after Columbus's return from what would be called West Indies division of influence became necessary to avoid conflict between Spanish and Portuguese. On the 4th of May 1493 two months after Columbus's arrival Catholic Monarchs received bull Inter caetera from Pope Alexander VI stating all lands west and south of pole-to-pole line 100 leagues west and south of Azores or Cape Verde Islands should belong to Castile. It did not mention Portugal which could not claim newly discovered lands east of line. King John II of Portugal was displeased with arrangement feeling it gave him too little land preventing him from reaching India his goal. He negotiated directly with Ferdinand and Isabella to move line west allowing him to claim newly discovered lands east of it. In 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas divided world between Portugal and Spain. Portugal gained control over Africa Asia and eastern South America encompassing everything outside Europe east of line drawn 370 leagues west of Cape Verde islands. The Spanish received everything west of this line including islands discovered by Columbus on first voyage. Dividing line situated about halfway between Portuguese Cape Verde and Spanish discoveries in Caribbean split known world of Atlantic islands evenly. In 1500 Pedro Álvares Cabral initially considering Brazilian coast as large island claimed it for Portugal east of dividing line. This claim acknowledged by Spanish. Later Spanish territory would prove include huge areas continental mainland North and South America though Portuguese-controlled Brazil would expand across line settlements by other European powers ignored treaty.
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Common questions
When did the joint rulers of Castile and Aragon fund Christopher Columbus's expedition?
The joint rulers of Castile and Aragon funded Christopher Columbus's expedition in 1492. On the 3rd of August 1492 Columbus departed from Palos de la Frontera to begin his voyage across the Atlantic Ocean.
Who sponsored the Portuguese systematic exploration of the Atlantic coast of Africa starting in 1418?
Prince Henry the Navigator sponsored the Portuguese systematic exploration of the Atlantic coast of Africa beginning in 1418. He invested in voyages down the coast of Mauritania and established settlements on Madeira in 1419 and the Azores in 1427.
What year did Ferdinand Magellan's fleet depart from Seville for the first circumnavigation of the globe?
Ferdinand Magellan's fleet departed from Seville on the 10th of August 1519 with five ships and a crew of about 237 European men. The Victoria returned to Spain on the 6th of September 1522 completing the first circumnavigation of the globe.
When was the Treaty of Tordesillas signed to divide the world between Portugal and Spain?
The Treaty of Tordesillas divided the world between Portugal and Spain in 1494. This agreement granted Portugal control over Africa Asia and eastern South America while giving Spain everything west of a line drawn 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands.
Which religious orders participated in missionary endeavours in the New World during the Age of Discovery?
Religious orders such as the Franciscans Dominicans Augustinians and Jesuits partook in most missionary endeavours in the New World. Their presence increased by the late 16th and 17th centuries as they sought to reassert their power and revive Catholic culture.