Crusades
On the 27th of November 1095, Pope Urban II stood before a crowd at the Council of Clermont in France and declared a military campaign against Turkomans. He promised spiritual rewards to those who took up arms for the recovery of Jerusalem from Muslim control. This moment marked the beginning of the First Crusade, a series of wars that would reshape the medieval world. The papacy had grown stronger by this time, having resolved conflicts with secular rulers and prepared itself to direct armed force in religious causes. Earlier theological debates about just war, articulated by Augustine in the 5th century, provided the intellectual foundation for such campaigns. Christians believed dying in a just war equated to martyrdom, offering remission of sins. Urban's call was not merely a political maneuver but a response to growing anxiety over sin and hopes for salvation. The appeal spread quickly among those present at Clermont, though much of Western Europe remained unaware of the crusade initially. Bishop Adhemar of Le Puy set the precedent for taking the cross, sewing it onto garments as a symbol of commitment. Thousands responded to the call, driven by faith, fear of damnation, and the promise of spiritual absolution.
The Princes' Crusade began in August 1096 when Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine, departed for the Holy Land. His army numbered between 60,000 and 100,000 men, including up to 7,000 knights. They captured Nicaea in June 1097 and advanced toward Antioch, once a Byzantine provincial capital in Syria. After a prolonged siege beginning in October 1097, Bohemond of Taranto secured Antioch through collusion with a guard. The Seljuk general Kerbogha assembled a 40,000-strong army in Iraq but arrived too late to prevent its fall. Despite famine, disease, and desertion, the crusaders defeated Kerbogha at the Battle of Antioch on the 28th of June 1098. The march on Jerusalem was halted due to intense summer heat and a plague that claimed Adhemar of Le Puy's life. On the 15th of July 1099, Genoese craftsmen arrived with siege towers enabling the conquest of the city. Over the next two days, they slaughtered the population and looted the city. Godfrey was elected Jerusalem's first Western ruler while Arnulf of Chocques became the first Latin patriarch. Within nine months, Baldwin of Boulogne captured Arsuf and Caesarea with Genoese aid. He defeated a superior Egyptian force at the First Battle of Ramla. By Christmas Day 1100, he had seized Jerusalem and forced Daimbert to crown him king.
The fall of Edessa on the 26th of December 1144 shocked Christendom and prompted Pope Eugenius III to issue the bull Quantum Praedecessores on the 1st of December 1145. This document granted remission of sins, protection of property, and debt suspension to those who took the cross. Louis VII of France declared his intention to lead a crusade after being troubled by guilt over a massacre in a church. At Vézelay in 1146, Cistercian abbot Bernard of Clairvaux persuaded many French nobles to join. A distinctive feature was the prominent presence of women: Louis VII was joined by his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine and her household. The fleet of 150 ships carried about 10,000 crusaders from northwestern Europe. They aided Afonso I of Portugal in his successful Siege of Lisbon in October 1147 and Ramon Berenguer IV of Barcelona in capturing Tortosa in December 1148. However, only a small contingent reached the Holy Land. The German army crossed into Anatolia without waiting for the French. On the 25th of October 1147 Mesud's forces crushed them at the Battle of Dorylaeum; many died, but Conrad, wounded, escaped into Byzantine territory. The Council of Acre resolved to besiege Damascus beginning on the 24th of July. Though Conrad repelled attacks, Damascene raids and news of Nur al-Din's approaching reinforcements soon forced the crusaders to abandon the siege. The failure gravely weakened crusading fervour in Europe.
Saladin executed Raynald of Châtillon after crushing the Jerusalemite field army at the Battle of Hattin on the 4th of July 1187. Raymond fled while others were killed or captured. After a 12-day siege, the city of Jerusalem surrendered to Saladin on the 2nd of October. Tyre resisted under the newly arrived crusader Conrad of Montferrat who sent Archbishop Joscius west for aid. Pope Gregory VIII launched the new crusade with the bull Audita tremendi on the 29th of October 1187. Richard I was the first to take the cross. The English prince raised further funds by exacting a taillage from the Jews. He met with Philip II at Vézelay on the 4th of July 1190 before departing. Richard's host numbered 35,000 men while the French force was smaller as many had already left under Henry of Champagne. On the 6th of June 1191 Richard conquered Cyprus before reaching Acre. Meanwhile, the long siege caused a deadly plague at Acre killing Queen Sibylla. Her death voided Guy's claim to kingship. Supported by French and German crusaders and the papal legate Ubaldo of Pisa, Conrad married Sibylla's half-sister Isabella on the 24th of November 1190. On the 12th of July 1191 the defenders surrendered without Saladin's approval under safe-conduct terms. From Acre, Richard advanced south defeating Saladin at the Battle of Arsuf and securing Jaffa. Peace talks led to the Treaty of Jaffa on the 2nd of September confirming Frankish control of the coast between Tyre and Jaffa.
Pope Innocent III proclaimed a new crusade in 1198 but Anglo-French war blocked any large-scale campaign. Six envoys including Geoffrey of Villehardouin were appointed to hire a fleet. They agreed with Doge Enrico Dandolo that Venice would build a fleet for 33,500 crusaders costing 85,000 marks over 20 tons of silver. After Theobald's unexpected death in May 1201, Boniface of Montferrat became leader. The crusade faltered when only a third of the expected force gathered at Venice. To recover losses, Dandolo proposed attacking Zara, a Christian city in Dalmatia under King Emeric of Hungary. Despite papal prohibition and protests from some including Simon de Montfort, the leaders agreed and captured Zara for Venice in November 1202. While wintering there, Alexios Angelos offered to reunite the Byzantine Church with Rome if restored to Constantinople. Though only recently absolved for attacking a Christian city, the leaders accepted and diverted the expedition. Their first assault failed but clergy kept morale with sermons branding the Byzantines schismatics worse than Jews. On the 12th of April 1204 the second attack succeeded and the Sack of Constantinople lasted three days. A committee elected Baldwin of Flanders as the first Latin Emperor while Boniface received Macedonia and Thessaly founding the Kingdom of Thessalonica.
The Fifth Crusade targeted Egypt but failed to conquer it in 1219, 21. Andrew II of Hungary and Leopold VI of Austria took the cross. Hungarian and Austrian crusaders embarked at Spalato on Venetian ships rather than southern Italian harbours. In May 1218 the army advanced on Damietta a thriving Nile Delta port. Al-Adil reportedly died of shock; his son al-Kamil offered to restore pre-1187 borders excluding Transjordan for withdrawal. The mystic Francis of Assisi met al-Kamil seeking to convert him unsuccessfully. Damietta fell to the crusaders in November 1219 but its possession sparked renewed conflict between John of Brienne and Pelagius. That July Louis I of Bavaria and Pelagius advanced towards Cairo but al-Kamil forced a northward retreat. With the Nile in flood he opened sluices flooding their route. Trapped, the crusaders accepted terms: Damietta was surrendered for safe conduct and an eight-year truce. By 1225 Frederick II had secured authority in Germany but relations with Pope Honorius III stayed cordial. He renewed his crusading vow in March 1225 pledging under threat of excommunication to depart in August 1227. On the 18th of February 1229 the Treaty of Jaffa ceded Jerusalem Bethlehem and other key cities to Christians while preserving Muslim places of worship.
The birth of military orders occurred when Patriarch Warmund approved Hugues de Payens' knightly confraternity whose members vowed poverty chastity obedience and protection of pilgrims. This marked the beginning of the Knights Templar who were installed in the former Al-Aqsa Mosque identified by Franks as Solomon's Temple. The Teutonic Knights assumed command of the crusade against pagan Prussians in 1230. Crusade indulgences could also be obtained through other campaigns such as the Iberian Albigensian and Northern Crusades thereby diminishing enthusiasm for expeditions in eastern Mediterranean. A 5% levy on clerical income across Europe for three years was imposed during preparations for the Fifth Crusade. Innocent pledged 30,000 pounds of silver to fund these efforts. By late September 1217 Hungarian and Austrian crusaders reached Acre where John of Brienne Hugh I of Cyprus and Bohemond IV of Antioch joined them. After a failed siege of Mount Tabor Andrew II deemed his vow fulfilled and withdrew with most Hungarians. Frisian German and Italian forces then joined advancing on Damietta in May 1218. The sudden collapse shocked Western Christendom as many blamed Pelagius for the disastrous final campaign while others including returning crusaders and Honorius condemned Frederick for failing to honour his vow.
Up Next
Common questions
When did Pope Urban II declare the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont?
Pope Urban II declared the First Crusade on the 27th of November 1095. This declaration occurred before a crowd at the Council of Clermont in France and promised spiritual rewards for recovering Jerusalem from Muslim control.
Who led the Princes' Crusade that began in August 1096?
Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine, led the Princes' Crusade which departed for the Holy Land in August 1096. His army numbered between 60,000 and 100,000 men including up to 7,000 knights.
What caused the failure of the Second Crusade against Damascus in 1148?
The Second Crusade failed because Damascene raids and news of Nur al-Din's approaching reinforcements forced the crusaders to abandon the siege beginning on the 24th of July. The German army had already been crushed by Mesud's forces at the Battle of Dorylaeum on the 25th of October 1147.
How did Richard I secure Frankish control of the coast after the Third Crusade?
Richard I secured Frankish control of the coast between Tyre and Jaffa through the Treaty of Jaffa signed on the 2nd of September 1192. This agreement followed his victory over Saladin at the Battle of Arsuf and the capture of Jaffa from Acre.
Why was the Fourth Crusade diverted to attack Constantinople instead of Egypt?
The Fourth Crusade was diverted when Alexios Angelos offered to reunite the Byzantine Church with Rome if restored to Constantinople. Leaders accepted this proposal while wintering in Zara despite papal prohibition and having recently attacked a Christian city.
When was Jerusalem returned to Christians during the Sixth Crusade under Frederick II?
Jerusalem was returned to Christians via the Treaty of Jaffa on the 18th of February 1229. This treaty ceded Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and other key cities to Christians while preserving Muslim places of worship.