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Cleopatra: the story on HearLore | HearLore
Cleopatra
Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator was the final active ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, a dynasty founded by a Macedonian Greek general named Ptolemy I Soter, a companion of Alexander the Great. Unlike her ancestors who refused to learn the native tongue, Cleopatra was the only Ptolemaic ruler known to have mastered the Egyptian language, speaking it fluently alongside Koine Greek, her first language, and several others including Hebrew, Arabic, and possibly Latin. She was born in Alexandria in early 69 BC, the daughter of Ptolemy XII Auletes, and her reign began in 51 BC following her father's death. Her existence marked the end of the Hellenistic period in the Mediterranean, as Egypt subsequently became a province of the Roman Empire after her death in 30 BC. The Ptolemaic dynasty was not of Egyptian extraction but was a Macedonian Greek-speaking ruling class that governed Egypt as Hellenistic monarchs, residing in the multicultural city of Alexandria while being crowned by the Egyptian high priest of Ptah at Memphis. Cleopatra's ability to bridge the gap between her Greek heritage and the native Egyptian population gave her a unique political advantage that her predecessors lacked, allowing her to navigate the complex ethnic and cultural landscape of her kingdom.
Exile And The Return
In 58 BC, Cleopatra's father, Ptolemy XII Auletes, was forced into exile by his own people after his profligate spending and economic mismanagement bankrupted the kingdom. He fled to Rome, taking his eleven-year-old daughter with him to the villa of the Roman triumvir Pompey in the Alban Hills. While in exile, Ptolemy XII spent roughly a year on the outskirts of Rome, ostensibly accompanied by Cleopatra, who would later be identified as the daughter who traveled with him. The Roman Senate initially denied him an armed escort to return to Egypt, but Pompey eventually persuaded the Roman governor of Syria, Aulus Gabinius, to invade Egypt and restore Ptolemy XII in exchange for 10,000 talents. This invasion took place in the spring of 55 BC, and during the campaign, a young Mark Antony served under Gabinius as a cavalry officer, distinguishing himself by preventing Ptolemy XII from massacring the inhabitants of Pelousion. Upon his return to power, Ptolemy XII executed his daughter Berenice IV and her supporters, seized their properties, and installed his Roman financier Rabirius as his chief financial officer. Cleopatra, then fourteen years old, had traveled with the Roman expedition into Egypt, and years later Antony would profess that he had fallen in love with her at this time. The restoration of her father was a precarious victory that left Egypt with massive debts and a garrison of Roman soldiers known as the Gabiniani, who harassed the streets of Alexandria.
Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator was the final active ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, a dynasty founded by a Macedonian Greek general named Ptolemy I Soter. She was the only Ptolemaic ruler known to have mastered the Egyptian language, speaking it fluently alongside Koine Greek and several others including Hebrew, Arabic, and possibly Latin.
When was Cleopatra born and when did her reign begin?
Cleopatra was born in Alexandria in early 69 BC, and her reign began in 51 BC following her father's death. Her death occurred in 30 BC, which marked the end of the Hellenistic period in the Mediterranean as Egypt subsequently became a province of the Roman Empire.
How did Cleopatra meet Julius Caesar?
Cleopatra met Julius Caesar in Alexandria in early October 48 BC after fleeing to the region of Thebes and sending emissaries to him. Plutarch alleges she was bound inside a bed sack to be smuggled into the palace to meet Caesar, while Cassius Dio records that she did so dressed in an attractive manner to charm him with her wit.
What happened at the Battle of Actium on the 2nd of September 31 BC?
On the 2nd of September 31 BC, the naval forces of Octavian led by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa met those of Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium. Cleopatra commanded 60 ships at the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf and used her strategic withdrawal to the Peloponnese to escape the battle, which led to massive defections of officers and troops to Octavian's side.
How did Cleopatra die and when did her death occur?
Cleopatra killed herself in 30 BC, probably by poisoning, to avoid being publicly displayed by Octavian in a Roman triumphal procession. Her death marked the end of the Hellenistic period in the Mediterranean, as Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire.
The summer of 49 BC saw Cleopatra and her forces fighting against her brother Ptolemy XIII within Alexandria when Pompey's son, Gnaeus Pompeius, arrived seeking military aid for his father. After losing the decisive Battle of Pharsalus on the 9th of August 48 BC, Pompey fled to Egypt, believing it would be his place of refuge. However, Ptolemy XIII's advisers, fearing Pompey would use Egypt as a base for a protracted Roman civil war, devised a scheme to ambush him. On the 28th of September 48 BC, Pompey arrived by ship near Pelousion after being invited by a written message, only to be ambushed and stabbed to death. Ptolemy XIII believed he had demonstrated his power by having Pompey's head, severed and embalmed, sent to Julius Caesar, who arrived in Alexandria by early October. Caesar expressed grief and outrage over the killing, calling on both Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra to disband their forces and reconcile. Cleopatra, who had been forced to flee Alexandria and withdraw to the region of Thebes, initially sent emissaries to Caesar but eventually came to Alexandria to see him personally. Plutarch provides an account that alleges she was bound inside a bed sack to be smuggled into the palace to meet Caesar, while Cassius Dio records that she did so without informing her brother, dressed in an attractive manner, and charmed Caesar with her wit. This meeting marked the beginning of a private affair that would produce a son, Caesarion, and fundamentally alter the course of Egyptian history.
The Siege Of Alexandria
When Ptolemy XIII realized his sister was in the palace consorting directly with Caesar, he attempted to rouse the populace of Alexandria into a riot, but Caesar used his oratorical skills to calm the frenzied crowd. Caesar then brought Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII before the assembly, revealing the written will of Ptolemy XII naming them as joint heirs. However, the eunuch Potheinos, Ptolemy XIII's regent, decided to have Achillas lead their forces to attack both Caesar and Cleopatra. The resulting siege of the palace lasted into the following year of 47 BC, trapping Caesar and Cleopatra inside. Caesar's reinforcements arrived between January and March of 47 BC, including those led by Mithridates of Pergamon and Antipater the Idumaean. Ptolemy XIII and Arsinoe IV withdrew their forces to the Nile, where Caesar attacked them. Ptolemy XIII tried to flee by boat, but it capsized, and he drowned. The siege ended with the death of Ptolemy XIII and the exile of Arsinoe IV, who was paraded in Caesar's triumph in Rome before being exiled to the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus. Cleopatra was conspicuously absent from these events, most likely because she had been pregnant with Caesar's child since September 48 BC. Caesar appointed the twelve-year-old Ptolemy XIV as joint ruler with the twenty-two-year-old Cleopatra in a nominal sibling marriage, but Cleopatra continued living privately with Caesar. Caesar departed from Egypt around April 47 BC, leaving three legions in Egypt to secure Cleopatra's tenuous position.
The Meeting At Tarsos
In the summer of 41 BC, Mark Antony established his headquarters at Tarsos in Anatolia and summoned Cleopatra there in several letters, which she rebuffed until Antony's envoy Quintus Dellius convinced her to come. Cleopatra sailed up the Kydnos River to Tarsos aboard the Thalamegos, a pleasure barge constructed by Ptolemy IV that measured 260 feet in length and 40 feet in height, complete with dining rooms, state rooms, holy shrines, and promenades along its two decks. She hosted Antony and his officers for two nights of lavish banquets on board the ship, boldly presenting herself as the Egyptian goddess Isis meeting her divine husband Osiris, knowing that the priests of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus had associated Antony with Dionysus. This meeting allowed Cleopatra to clear up the misconception that she had supported Cassius during the civil war and address territorial exchanges in the Levant. Antony was well received by the populace of Alexandria when he visited Egypt by November 41 BC, enjoying the lavish royal lifestyle he had witnessed aboard Cleopatra's ship. Cleopatra carefully chose Antony as her partner for producing further heirs, as he was deemed to be the most powerful Roman figure following Caesar's demise. With his powers as a triumvir, Antony had the broad authority to restore former Ptolemaic lands, which were currently in Roman hands, to Cleopatra. By the spring of 40 BC, Antony left Egypt due to troubles in Syria, but Cleopatra provided him with 200 ships for his campaign and as payment for her newly acquired territories.
The Donations Of Alexandria
In 34 BC, Antony held a military parade in Alexandria as an imitation of a Roman triumph, dressed as Dionysus and riding into the city on a chariot to present the royal prisoners to Cleopatra, who was seated on a golden throne above a silver dais. In an event held at the gymnasium soon after the triumph, Cleopatra dressed as Isis and declared that she was the Queen of Kings with her son Caesarion, King of Kings, while Alexander Helios was declared king of Armenia, Media, and Parthia, and two-year-old Ptolemy Philadelphus was declared king of Syria and Cilicia. Cleopatra Selene II was bestowed with Crete and Cyrene. Antony and Cleopatra may have been wed during this ceremony, and Antony sent a report to Rome requesting ratification of these territorial claims, now known as the Donations of Alexandria. Octavian wanted to publicize it for propaganda purposes, but the two consuls, both supporters of Antony, had it censored from public view. In late 34 BC, Antony and Octavian engaged in a heated war of propaganda that would last for years. Octavian waged a propaganda war against Antony and Cleopatra, stressing Cleopatra's status as a woman and a foreigner who wished to share in Roman power. Antony claimed that his rival had illegally deposed Lepidus from their triumvirate, while Octavian accused Antony of unlawfully detaining the king of Armenia, marrying Cleopatra despite still being married to his sister Octavia, and wrongfully claiming Caesarion as the heir of Caesar instead of Octavian. The litany of accusations and gossip associated with this propaganda war has shaped the popular perceptions about Cleopatra from Augustan-period literature through to various media in modern times.
The Battle Of Actium
On the 2nd of September 31 BC, the naval forces of Octavian, led by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, met those of Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium. Cleopatra, aboard her flagship the Antonias, commanded 60 ships at the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf, at the rear of the fleet, in what was likely a move by Antony's officers to marginalize her during the battle. Antony had ordered that their ships should have sails on board for a better chance to pursue or flee from the enemy, which Cleopatra, ever concerned about defending Egypt, used to swiftly move through the area of major combat in a strategic withdrawal to the Peloponnese. Antony followed Cleopatra and boarded her ship, identified by its distinctive purple sails, as the two escaped the battle and headed for Tainaron. The Battle of Actium raged on without Cleopatra and Antony until the morning of the 3rd of September, and was followed by massive defections of officers, troops, and allied kings to Octavian's side. While some in Antony's camp suggested abandoning the naval conflict to retreat inland, Cleopatra urged a naval confrontation to keep Octavian's fleet away from Egypt. Her insistence that she be involved in the battle for Greece led to the defections of prominent Romans, such as Ahenobarbus and Lucius Munatius Plancus. The defeat at Actium marked the beginning of the end for the Ptolemaic Kingdom, as Octavian's forces invaded Egypt in 30 BC.
The Final Hours
After the defeat at Actium, Antony and Cleopatra landed at Paraitonion in Egypt and then went their separate ways, Antony to Cyrene to raise more troops and Cleopatra to the harbor at Alexandria. Cleopatra planned to relinquish her throne to her son Caesarion, take her fleet from the Mediterranean into the Red Sea, and then set sail to a foreign port, perhaps in India, where she could spend time recuperating. However, these plans were ultimately abandoned when Malichus I, as advised by Octavian's governor of Syria, Quintus Didius, managed to burn Cleopatra's fleet in revenge for his losses in a war with Herod that Cleopatra had largely initiated. Cleopatra had no other option but to stay in Egypt and negotiate with Octavian. Although most likely later pro-Octavian propaganda, it was reported that at this time, Cleopatra started testing the strengths of various poisons on prisoners and even her own servants. In Alexandria, she built a reclusive cottage on the island of Pharos that she nicknamed the Timoneion, after the philosopher Timon of Athens, who was famous for his cynicism and misanthropy. Octavian's forces invaded Egypt in 30 BC and defeated Antony, who committed suicide. After his death, Cleopatra killed herself, probably by poisoning, to avoid being publicly displayed by Octavian in a Roman triumphal procession. Her death marked the end of the Hellenistic period in the Mediterranean, as Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire. The legacy of Cleopatra survives in ancient and modern works of art, from Roman busts and coinage to Renaissance operas and modern Hollywood films, cementing her status as a pop culture icon of Egyptomania.