Rome
Archaeological evidence places human presence in the Rome area approximately 14,000 years ago. Stone tools and pottery fragments found at the site attest to about 10,000 years of continuous habitation before the city's legendary birth. Excavations on the Palatine Hill reveal that pastoral settlements grew from small villages atop seven hills between the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age. By the mid-eighth century BC, these villages aggregated into a single urban center through a process known as synoecism. This development coincided with increased agricultural productivity and trade with Greek colonies like Ischia and Cumae. The traditional founding date remains the 21st of April 753 BC according to Roman annalists who credited Romulus with establishing the settlement after killing his brother Remus. While modern archaeology suggests gradual growth rather than deliberate foundation, the legend persists as a core cultural narrative. The name Roma may derive from the archaic Tiber River name Rumon or from an Etruscan word meaning teat referencing the she-wolf myth. Ancient sources also link the name to strength via the Greek word for power.
Rome transitioned from monarchy to republic in 509 BC when citizens expelled the last king Lucius Tarquinius Superbus. Two annually elected consuls led the new oligarchic government while internal struggles erupted between patricians and plebeians. Warfare against neighboring populations including Etruscans Latins Volsci Aequi and Marsi expanded Roman control across central Italy. The third and fourth centuries BC saw Rome establish hegemony over the Mediterranean through three Punic Wars fought against Carthage from 264 to 146 BC. Three Macedonian Wars from 212 to 168 BC defeated Macedonia and established Roman provinces including Sicily Sardinia Corsica Hispania Macedonia Achaea and Africa. By the second century BC aristocratic conflict divided society into optimates representing conservative Senate interests and populares relying on urban lower classes. Bankruptcy among small farmers drove large-scale migration to the city creating a professional army loyal to generals rather than the state. Civil wars followed social reform attempts by Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus the war against Jugurtha and slave revolts under Spartacus. Julius Caesar emerged victorious after defeating Pompey then declared himself dictator for life before his assassination in 44 BC. Octavian Caesar's grandnephew formed a second Triumvirate with Mark Antony and Lepidus leading to final civil war victory. In 27 BC Octavian became Augustus founding the principate that evolved into imperial rule known as imperator meaning commander.
The Great Fire of Rome during Nero's reign ruined two-thirds of the city while persecution of Christians commenced. Population estimates suggest decline from 800,000 to between 450,000 and 500,000 by the time Vandals sacked the city in 455 AD. After Gothic sieges in 537 the population dropped further to perhaps 30,000 though it rose to 90,000 under Pope Gregory the Great. Grain shipments from North Africa ceased around 440 causing food shortages that accelerated demographic collapse. The Western Roman Empire ended when Romulus Augustus was deposed on the 4th of September 476 marking the beginning of the Middle Ages for many historians. Following Lombard invasions between 569 and 572 the city remained nominally Byzantine while popes pursued equilibrium among Byzantines Franks and Lombards. In 729 King Liutprand donated Sutri starting papal temporal power. Pepin the Short defeated Lombards in 756 granting the pope jurisdiction over the Duchy of Rome and Exarchate of Ravenna creating the Papal States. Three powers contested control throughout the Middle Ages: the pope nobility including militia chiefs judges Senate and populace and Frankish kings as Lombard rulers. Charlemagne received imperial coronation from Pope Leo III on Christmas night 800 establishing the Carolingian Empire phase of the Holy Roman Empire. Muslim Arabs unsuccessfully stormed walls in 846 looting St Peter's and St Paul's basilicas outside city limits. Feudal chaos engulfed Rome with noble families like Annibaldi Caetani Colonna Orsini Conti fighting each other to control the papacy.
The Council of Constance settled the Western Schism in 1418 electing Martin V bringing a century of internal peace marking Renaissance beginnings. Popes from Nicholas V founder of Vatican Library through Sixtus IV warrior pope Alexander VI immoral nepotist Julius II soldier patron and Leo X devoted energy to transforming Rome into global art center. The Italian Renaissance moved from Florence to Rome during this period creating masterpieces like new Saint Peter's Basilica Sistine Chapel and Ponte Sisto first bridge across Tiber since antiquity. Artists including Michelangelo Perugino Raphael Ghirlandaio Luca Signorelli Botticelli and Cosimo Rosselli worked under papal patronage. Michelangelo decorated Sistine Chapel ceiling while executing Moses statue for Julius II tomb. Raphael created frescoes in Villa Farnesina Raphael's Rooms plus many famous paintings. Economy thrived with Tuscan bankers like Agostino Chigi friend of Raphael promoting preservation of ancient ruins. War of League Cognac caused first plunder in over five centuries when Landsknechts of Emperor Charles V sacked city in 1527 ending golden age abruptly. Counter-Reformation began at Council Trent in 1545 shifting power away from Church but popes Pius IV through Sixtus V made Rome center reformed Catholicism building baroque monuments celebrating papacy. New aristocratic families Barberini Pamphili Chigi Rospigliosi Altieri Odescalchi protected by respective popes built huge baroque buildings for relatives. Age Enlightenment ideas reached Eternal City where papacy supported archaeological studies improving people welfare despite setbacks like 1773 suppression Jesuit order forced by secular powers.
Short-lived Roman Republic existed between 1798 and 1800 established under French Revolution influence before Papal States restored June 1800. Napoleon annexed Rome as Département du Tibre 1809-1810 then Département Rome 1810-1814 until Congress Vienna decision 1814 reconstituted Papal States. Second Roman Republic proclaimed 1849 during year revolutions with Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi fighting for cause. Rest of Italy united Kingdom of Italy 1861 temporary capital Florence declared Rome capital even though still under Pope control. Last vestiges Papal States under French protection thanks foreign policy Napoleon III stationed troops region under Papal control. French troops withdrew 1870 due Franco-Prussian War outbreak allowing Italian capture entering city through breach near Porta Pia. Pope Pius IX declared himself prisoner Vatican making 1871 capital move from Florence official. Population stood 212,000 all living within ancient city area 1870 rising to 660,000 by 1920 significant portion outside walls north across Tiber Vatican area. Late 1922 witnessed rise Italian Fascism led Benito Mussolini marching on city doing away democracy 1926 declaring new Italian Empire allying Nazi Germany 1938. Mussolini demolished large parts city center building wide avenues squares celebrating fascist regime glorification classical Rome. Interwar period saw rapid population growth surpassing one million inhabitants early 1930s despite Fascist attempts block excessive demographic rise. World War II spared Rome tragic destiny other European cities due art treasuries presence Vatican yet San Lorenzo district suffered Allied bombing raids the 19th of July 1943 resulting about 3,000 fatalities 11,000 injuries another 1,500 died later. Mussolini arrested the 25th of July 1943 Germans occupied city Italian Armistice date the 8th of September 1943 Allied bombing continued throughout 1943 extending into 1944 liberation occurred the 4th of June 1944.
Rome occupies Lazio region central Italy along Tiber River ford beside Tiber Island only natural crossing this area. Original settlement developed hills facing ford including Aventine Hill Caelian Hill Capitoline Hill Esquiline Hill Palatine Hill Quirinal Hill Viminal Hill forming seven hills basis Kings Rome. Modern Rome crossed Aniene river flowing into Tiber north historic center though city center remains inland from Tyrrhenian Sea territory extends shore where south-western Ostia located. Altitude ranges above sea level base Pantheon to peak Monte Mario covering overall area many green areas Public parks nature reserves cover large area one largest green spaces among European capitals. Notable parts include Villa Borghese Villa Ada Villa Doria Pamphili west Gianicolo hill comprising some area. Villa Sciarra hill playgrounds children shaded walking areas nearby Trastevere Orto Botanico Botanical Garden cool shady green space old Roman hippodrome Circus Maximus few trees overlooked Palatine Rose Garden lush Villa Celimontana gardens surrounding Baths Caracalla best known large green space famous art galleries shaded walks overlooking Piazza del Popolo Spanish Steps gardens Pincio Villa Medici notable pine wood Castelfusano near Ostia regional parks Pineto Regional Park Appian Way Regional Park nature reserves Marcigliana Tenuta di Castelporziano.
By 550 BC Rome second largest city Italy after Taras modern Taranto Salento Peninsula area about estimated population 35,000 other sources suggest just under 100,000 600-500 BC Republic founded 509 BC census recorded 130,000 including immediate surroundings suggesting 150,000 500 BC surpassing 300,000 150 BC Emperor Augustus size matter speculation estimates based grain distribution imports aqueduct capacity limits density census reports assumptions unreported women children slaves providing wide range Glenn Storey 450,000 Whitney Oates 1.2 million Neville Morely rough estimate 800,000 excluding earlier suggestions 2 million. Population declined late fourth century onward mid-fifth century continued most populous city two Empire parts Arnold HM Jones estimated 650,000 mid-fifth century damage sackings overestimated still close 800,000 400 AD declined 500,000 452 dwindled perhaps 100,000 500 AD Gothic Wars 535-552 temporarily 30,000 pontificate Pope Gregory I 590-604 reached 90,000 augmented refugees Richard Krautheimer Lancon estimates 500,000 incisi enrolled eligible receive bread oil wine rations fell 120,000 reform 419 Neil Christie citing free rations poorest estimated 500,000 mid-fifth quarter million end century supplies grain steady seizure remaining provinces North Africa 439 Vandals may continued degree afterwards population less than 50,000 Early Middle Ages from 700 stagnate shrink Renaissance Kingdom Italy annexed Rome 1870 about 225,000 Less half within walls built up 1881 recorded 275,000 increased 600,000 eve World War Fascist Mussolini regime tried block excessive demographic rise failed prevent reaching one million early 1930s growth continued post Second World War economic boom construction boom suburbs 1950s 1960s. Mid-2010 2,754,440 residents city proper some 4.2 million greater Rome area administrative metropolitan city density about 800 inhabitants/km stretching over more Minors children ages 18 younger totalled 17.00% compared pensioners number 20.76% Italian average 18.06% minors 19.94% pensioners average age Roman resident 43 compared Italian average 42 five years between 2002 2007 population grew 6.54% while Italy whole grew 3.56% current birth rate 9.10 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared Italian average 9.45 urban area extends beyond administrative limits around 3.9 million Between 3.2 4.2 million people live Rome metropolitan area.
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Common questions
When was Rome founded according to Roman annalists?
Roman annalists state the traditional founding date is the 21st of April 753 BC. This legend credits Romulus with establishing the settlement after killing his brother Remus.
What year did the Western Roman Empire end in Rome?
The Western Roman Empire ended when Romulus Augustus was deposed on the 4th of September 476. This event marks the beginning of the Middle Ages for many historians.
Who led the rise of Italian Fascism in Rome during late 1922?
Benito Mussolini led the rise of Italian Fascism in Rome starting in late 1922. He marched on the city and abolished democracy by 1926 before declaring a new Italian Empire.
Which hills form the seven hills basis of ancient Rome?
Original settlements developed on hills including Aventine Hill Caelian Hill Capitoline Hill Esquiline Hill Palatine Hill Quirinal Hill and Viminal Hill. These seven hills formed the basis of Kings Rome.
How many residents lived in Rome proper by mid-2010?
Mid-2010 records show 2,754,440 residents living in Rome proper. The greater Rome area contains some 4.2 million people within its administrative metropolitan city limits.