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— CH. 1 · ADMINISTRATIVE ORIGINS AND DIVISION —

Western Roman Empire

~7 min read · Ch. 1 of 7
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  • In 395, the Roman Empire split into two distinct courts when Emperor Theodosius I died. His son Honorius inherited the western half while his brother Arcadius took the eastern half. Both rulers were minors at the time, unable to govern effectively on their own. This division was not a new concept but rather an institutionalization of practices that had been developing for decades. Diocletian introduced the Tetrarchy system in 286, creating four regions with two senior Augustus emperors and two subordinate Caesars. The first Tetrarchy placed Maximian in the West with Mediolanum as capital, while Galerius ruled from Sirmium in the East. Constantine later unified the empire again after defeating Licinius at Chrysopolis in 324. He refounded Byzantium as Constantinople, making it the new eastern capital. After Constantine's death in 337, his three sons divided the territories among themselves. Constantius received the eastern provinces including Asia Minor and Syria, while Constantine II got Britannia and Gaul. Constans initially supervised Italy and Africa before being assassinated in 350. The pattern of division continued through subsequent reigns until Theodosius I became the last emperor to rule both halves simultaneously.

  • The assassination of Alexander Severus in March 235 triggered fifty years of civil war known as the Crisis of the Third Century. During this period, multiple usurpers competed for power while barbarian invasions threatened Roman borders. Valerian and his son Gallienus attempted to divide the empire between them, with Valerian ruling from the East and Gallienus from the West. However, Valerian was captured by Sassanid forces at Edessa, leaving Gallienus as sole emperor. Postumus rebelled against Gallienus, establishing an independent Gallic Empire centered at Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier). This breakaway state controlled Germanic and Gaulish provinces plus all of Hispania and Britannia. It maintained Roman religion and culture while focusing on defending against Germanic incursions rather than challenging central authority. Claudius Gothicus restored large portions of the Gallic Empire to Roman control between 268 and 270. Simultaneously, Queen Zenobia's Palmyrene Empire seceded in the eastern provinces. Aurelian defeated Tetricus I at Châlons in 274, capturing both him and his son. He also reclaimed Palmyra after defeating Zenobia, who was paraded in triumph before being pardoned. The crisis demonstrated how military commanders could seize power through force rather than legitimate succession.

  • Honorius inherited the western throne at age ten following Theodosius I's death in 395. His capital moved from Mediolanum to Ravenna in 401 when Visigothic king Alaric I entered Italy. Ravenna offered protection through marshes and fortifications but made defending central Italy difficult. Stilicho, a half-Roman general, managed to defeat Alaric twice before allowing him to retreat to Illyria. However, court intrigues led to Stilicho's execution in 408 by minister Olympius. This decision caused many federated troops to join Alaric, who returned to sack Rome in 410. The event shocked both halves of the empire as it marked the first time since the Gallic invasions that Rome had fallen to foreign enemies. After Honorius died in 423, turmoil continued until Valentinian III was installed with Galla Placidia acting as regent. Aetius rose to magister militum status, stabilizing the situation somewhat through Hunnic alliances. He defeated Visigoths in 437 and 438 but suffered setbacks in 439. Meanwhile, Vandal king Gaiseric crossed into Africa in 429, eventually capturing Carthage on the 19th of October 439. Majorian became western emperor in 457 after defeating Alemanni forces. He restored Roman authority across Hispania and most of Gaul, defeating Visigoths at Arelate and Burgundians along the Rhone Valley. His campaign aimed to reconquer Africa from Vandals, but his fleet was destroyed by traitors paid by King Gaiseric. Ricimer deposed Majorian in 461 after five days of beatings and torture before beheading him near river Iria.

  • On the 4th of September 476, Odoacer captured Ravenna and killed Orestes, deposing Romulus Augustus. This event marked the conventional end of the Western Roman Empire though contemporary records show little attention given to it. Julius Nepos continued ruling from Dalmatia with Eastern support until his murder in 480. Odoacer negotiated with Emperor Zeno, receiving patrician status as recognition of his authority over Italy. He issued coins bearing Nepos's name throughout Italy while never returning real power or territories to the exiled emperor. When Nepos died, Odoacer invaded Dalmatia, annexing it to his Kingdom of Italy. The Senate remained functional under Odoacer, even increasing its power compared to previous decades. Copper coins bore the legend S C (Senatus Consulto), copied by Vandals in Africa. Eleven consuls were appointed between 480 and 493, including Caecina Decius Maximus Basilus who became praetorian prefect of Italy in 483. Odoacer ruled using existing Roman administrative systems rather than creating new ones. His position mirrored that of imperial governors before him, maintaining continuity despite political changes.

  • Emperor Justinian I launched military campaigns between 533 and 554 to reclaim former western territories. General Belisarius swiftly retaken North Africa between June 533 and March 534, establishing a new Praetorian Prefecture of Africa. The province was returned to Roman rule with measures decreasing Vandal influence until their complete disappearance. From 534 to 540, Roman forces captured Ravenna, the Ostrogothic capital, during the Gothic War. King Totila revived resistance in 541 but was finally defeated by general Narses who also repelled Frankish and Alemanni invasions. Some northern Italian cities held out until the 560s. Justinian promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction to reorganize Italian governance before returning it to direct Roman control. The reconquest left Italy devastated and depopulated, making retention difficult following the Plague of Justinian. Limited campaigns recovered portions of southern Iberia where Spania lasted until the 620s when Visigoths under Suintila reconquered the coast. Three years after Justinian's death, Lombards invaded Italy in the late 500s, establishing the Lombard Kingdom. They conflicted constantly with the Exarchate of Ravenna, which replaced the old Praetorian Prefecture. Wealthy areas including Rome and Ravenna remained securely in Roman hands throughout the seventh century.

  • Germanic kingdoms founded during the empire's collapse continued growing and prospering after 476. Their beginnings mark the transition from late antiquity to the Middle Ages. Practices gradually replaced old Roman institutions specifically within praetorian prefectures of Gaul and Italy during sixth and seventh centuries. Barbarian rulers used existing Roman systems while modifying them for their needs. Settlement on former Roman lands caused relatively little disruption in regions like Gaul and Italy. The Domain of Soissons survived as a rump state in northern Gaul until 486 when conquered by Frankish king Clovis I. Syagrius governed this territory claiming merely to administer a Roman province rather than establish independence. Under Clovis from the 480s to 511, Franks developed into great regional powers defeating Alemanni in 504 and conquering Visigothic territory north of Pyrenees except Septimania in 507. Emperor Anastasius granted Clovis consul title following victory against Visigoths. A Mauro-Roman realm existed in Mauretania Caesariensis until late seventh or early eighth century. An inscription at Altava from 508 identifies Masuna as King of Moors and Romans who allied with Eastern forces against Vandals in 535. This kingdom was defeated by magister militum Gennadius in 578, incorporating coastal territories back into Empire control.

  • New Germanic rulers maintained most Roman laws and traditions after conquering constituent provinces. Many invading tribes were already Christianized though followers of Arianism initially. They quickly changed adherence to state church helping cement loyalty among local populations and supporting powerful Bishop of Rome. Indigenous tribal laws were gradually incorporated alongside Roman law influence. The Corpus Juris Civilis collected under Justinian I forms basis of modern civil law used in about 150 countries today. Vulgar Latin combined with neighboring Germanic and Celtic languages creating Romance languages including Italian French Spanish Portuguese Romanian plus numerous minor dialects. More than 900 million people speak Romance languages worldwide today. Their distribution across Western Europe almost reflects continental borders of old empire. Latin did not disappear but evolved through centuries of transformation. Political changes can be described more accurately as complex cultural transformations rather than simple falls. Roman administrative institutions continued functioning during barbarian rule especially within Italy where Senate remained active throughout Odoacer's reign. Laws recognized as ruling Roman population while Goths followed traditional customs. This continuity allowed preservation of legal frameworks despite political upheaval affecting governance structures significantly.

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Common questions

When did the Roman Empire split into two distinct courts?

The Roman Empire split into two distinct courts in 395 when Emperor Theodosius I died. His son Honorus inherited the western half while his brother Arcadius took the eastern half.

Who was the last emperor to rule both halves of the Roman Empire simultaneously?

Theodosius I became the last emperor to rule both halves of the Roman Empire simultaneously before his death in 395. Subsequent reigns continued the pattern of division until the conventional end of the Western Roman Empire.

What event marked the conventional end of the Western Roman Empire on the 4th of September 476?

Odoacer captured Ravenna and killed Orestes on the 4th of September 476, deposing Romulus Augustus. This event marked the conventional end of the Western Roman Empire though contemporary records show little attention given to it.

Which general led military campaigns between 533 and 554 to reclaim former western territories under Justinian I?

General Belisarius swiftly retaken North Africa between June 533 and March 534 during military campaigns launched by Emperor Justinian I. He also participated in capturing Ravenna from Ostrogothic forces during the Gothic War.

When did Vandal king Gaiseric capture Carthage after crossing into Africa in 429?

Vandal king Gaiseric captured Carthage on the 19th of October 439 after crossing into Africa in 429. This conquest removed a major province from Roman control and contributed to the instability of the Western Roman Empire.

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All sources

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