Attila
Scholars have debated the linguistic roots of Attila's name for centuries. Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm proposed in the early 19th century that the name derives from Gothic or Gepidic nouns. They suggested it comes from atta, meaning father, combined with the diminutive suffix -ila to mean little father. Gerhard Doerfer later noted this derivation offers no phonetic or semantic difficulties. Some historians argue the name is simply correct Gothic. Alexander Savelyev and Choongwon Jeong stated in 2020 that Attila's name must have been Gothic in origin. Other scholars propose a Turkic origin instead. Omeljan Pritsak considered Attíla a composite title derived from es meaning great or old and til meaning sea or ocean. This would translate to the oceanic universal ruler. H. Althof connected it to Turkish atli meaning horseman or cavalier. Maenchen-Helfen argued Pritsak's derivation was ingenious but unacceptable for many reasons. M. Snædal noted none of these proposals achieved wide acceptance. Hyun Jin Kim argued the Turkic etymology is more probable. In 2025 Svenja Bonmann and Simon Fries hypothesized the name could come from an Old Arin adjective meaning quicker or quite quick.
The historiography of Attila faces a major challenge because only complete sources are written in Greek and Latin by enemies of the Huns. Priscus was a Byzantine diplomat who wrote in Greek and served as a witness to events at the Hunnic court in 449. He recorded a physical description of Attila, which remains the only known account of his appearance. Priscus wrote a history covering the period from 430 to 476 in eight books. Only fragments of his work survive today. These fragments were cited extensively by 6th-century historians Procopius and Jordanes. Jordanes included numerous references to Priscus's history in The Origin and Deeds of the Goths. Marcellinus Comes described relations between the Huns and the Eastern Roman Empire during the same era. Numerous ecclesiastical writings contain scattered information that is sometimes difficult to authenticate. Hungarian writers of the 12th century repressed certain historical elements while adding their own legends. They wished to portray the Huns positively as glorious ancestors. The literature and knowledge of the Huns themselves were transmitted orally through epics and chanted poems. Indirectly fragments of this oral history reached us via Scandinavian and Germanic literature written between the 9th and 13th centuries. Archaeological investigation has uncovered some details about Hunnic lifestyle art and warfare. No traces of battles or sieges have been found yet. The tomb of Attila and the location of his capital remain undiscovered.
The Huns were a group of Eurasian nomads who appeared east of the Volga river. They migrated further into Western Europe around 370 and built an enormous empire there. Their main military techniques involved mounted archery and javelin throwing. Attila's father Mundzuk was the brother of kings Octar and Ruga who reigned jointly over the Hunnic empire in the early fifth century. This form of diarchy was recurrent with the Huns though historians are unsure if it was institutionalized. Attila's birthdate remains debated among scholars. Journalist Éric Deschodt and writer Herman Schreiber proposed a date of 395. Historian Iaroslav Lebedynsky and archaeologist Katalin Escher prefer an estimate between the 390s and the first decade of the fifth century. Several historians have proposed 406 as the date. His people crossed the Volga river during the 370s and annexed territory belonging to the Alans. They then attacked the Gothic kingdom between the Carpathian Mountains and the Danube. Vast populations fleeing the Huns moved from Germania into the Roman Empire. In 376 Goths crossed the Danube initially submitting to Romans before rebelling against Emperor Valens. The Battle of Adrianople in 378 resulted in Valens being killed. Large numbers of Vandals Alans Suebi and Burgundians crossed the Rhine on the 31st of December 406 to escape the Huns. The Roman Empire had been split since 395 with distinct governments based in Ravenna and Constantinople.
The death of Rugila in 434 left Attila and his brother Bleda in control of united Hun tribes. At their accession they bargained with Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II's envoys for return of renegades who took refuge within the empire. The following year Attila and Bleda met imperial legation at Margus seated on horseback in Hunnic manner. They negotiated an advantageous treaty requiring Romans to double tribute of 350 Roman pounds of gold. The agreement also opened markets to Hunnish traders and set ransom at eight solidi per prisoner. Theodosius used this opportunity to strengthen walls of Constantinople including building its first sea wall. In 440 the Huns reappeared attacking merchants at market north bank of Danube established by 435 treaty. Crossing the Danube they laid waste to cities of Illyricum including Viminacium according to Priscus. Their advance began at Margus where they demanded bishop surrender property Attila regarded as his. While Romans discussed fate of bishop he slipped away secretly to Huns and betrayed city. In 441 Attila and Bleda invaded Balkans after Vandals captured Carthage from Western Empire. Theodosius recalled troops from Sicily and ordered new coin issue to finance operations against Huns. He believed he could defeat Huns and refused demands. Attila responded with campaign in 443 using battering rams and rolling siege towers for first time. His forces successfully assaulted military centers of Ratiara and Naissus massacring inhabitants.
In 450 Attila proclaimed intent to attack Visigoth kingdom of Toulouse making alliance with Emperor Valentinian III. Honoria sister of Valentinian sent Hunnish king plea for help along with engagement ring to escape forced betrothal. Attila chose to interpret message as marriage proposal accepting half western empire as dowry. When Valentinian discovered plan only influence of mother Galla Placidia convinced him to exile Honoria rather than kill her. Attila interfered in succession struggle after death of Frankish ruler supporting elder son while Aëtius supported younger. He gathered Gepids Ostrogoths Rugians Scirians Heruls Thuringians Alans Burgundians among others beginning march west. In 451 he arrived in Belgica with army Jordanes exaggerated to half million strong. On April 7 he captured Metz and also Strasbourg. Other cities attacked include Rheims where bishop Nicasius was slaughtered before altar. Saint Genevieve is said to have saved Paris through prayer. Lupus bishop of Troyes met Attila personally credited with saving his city. Aëtius moved to oppose Attila gathering troops from Franks Burgundians and Celts. Mission by Avitus and continued westward advance convinced Visigoth king Theodoric I to ally with Romans. Combined armies reached Orléans ahead of Attila checking and turning back Hunnish advance. Aëtius gave chase catching Huns near Catalaunum modern Châlons-en-Champagne. Two armies clashed in Battle of Catalaunian Plains outcome commonly considered strategic victory for alliance. Theodoric killed fighting while Aëtius failed press advantage fearing overwhelming Visigothic triumph.
Attila returned in 452 renewing marriage claim with Honoria invading and ravaging Italy along way. Communities became established later as Venice when residents fled small islands Venetian Lagoon. His army sacked numerous cities razing Aquileia completely making original site hard to recognize afterwards. Aëtius lacked strength offering battle managing only harass slow advance with shadow force. Attila finally halted River Po where disease starvation may have taken hold camp hindering war efforts. Emperor Valentinian III sent three envoys including Pope Leo I meeting Attila Mincio vicinity Mantua obtaining promise withdraw negotiate peace. Prosper of Aquitaine gives short description historic meeting giving all credit Leo successful negotiation. Priscus reports superstitious fear fate Alaric gave pause since Alaric died shortly after sacking Rome 410. Italy suffered terrible famine 451 crops little better 452. Attila devastating invasion plains northern Italy this year did not improve harvest. Taking city would not improve supply situation therefore more profitable conclude peace retreat homeland. East Roman force crossed Danube under officer named Aëtius defeating Huns left safeguard home territories. Attila withdrew palace across Danube planning strike Constantinople once more reclaim tribute. He died early months 453. Conventional account from Priscus says Attila feast celebrating latest marriage to beautiful young Ildico. In midst revels he suffered severe bleeding dying possibly nosebleed choking stupor or internal bleeding ruptured esophageal varices caused years excessive alcohol consumption.
Attila's sons Ellac Dengizich Ernak destroyed empire rash eagerness rule alike. They clamored nations divided equally warlike kings peoples apportioned lot family estate. Against treatment slaves basest condition Germanic alliance led Gepid ruler Ardaric revolted fighting Huns Pannonia Battle Nedao 454 AD. Attila eldest son Ellac killed battle. Sons regarding Goths deserters came against them seeking fugitive slaves attacking Ostrogothic co-ruler Valamir fought alongside Ardaric Catalaunian Plains. Repelled some group Huns moved Scythia probably those Ernak. Brother Dengizich attempted renewed invasion across Danube 468 defeated Bassianae Ostrogoths. Dengizich killed Roman-Gothic general Anagast following year after which Hunnic dominion ended. Many close relatives known name deeds valid genealogical sources rare verifiable way trace descendants beyond few generations. Nominalia Bulgarian khans mythological Avitohol Irnik Dulo clan Bulgars credible claim. Hungarian Árpád dynasty claimed direct descendant Attila. Medieval Hungarian chronicles Gesta Hungarorum Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum Chronicon Pictum Buda Chronicle Chronica Hungarorum claimed Árpád Aba clan descendants Attila.
Name has many variants several languages including Atli Atle Old Norse Etzel Middle High German Nibelungenlied. Aëtla appears Old English while Attila Atilla Etele common Hungarian usage. Turkish variation includes Atilay or Atila Kazakh Adil Edil Mongolian Adil same similar Edil use. Basic premise Hungarian medieval chronicle tradition Hun-Hungarian continuity guiding principle chronicles. Hungarian state founder royal dynasty Árpád claimed direct descendant great Hun leader Attila. Grand Prince Árpád says Gesta Hungarorum King Matthias Hungary 1458, 1490 happy described second Attila. Chronica Hungarorum Johannes Thuróczy set goal glorifying Attila undeservedly neglected introduced famous Scourge God characterization later Hungarian writers. Thuróczy worked hard endear Attila Hun king effort far surpassing predecessor chroniclers. He made Attila model victorious ruler King Matthias Hungary having Attila abilities bringing hammer world life. Jordanes embellished report Priscus reporting Attila possessed Holy War Sword Scythians given Mars making prince entire world. German chronicler Lampert Hersfeld Annales written up to 1077 recounts Anastasia mother King Solomon Hungary gave Sword Attila Otto Nordheim Duke Bavaria token gratitude helping Solomon ascend throne. Cavalry sabre now Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna appears work Hungarian goldsmiths ninth tenth century. Some histories describe Attila great noble king playing major roles three Norse texts Atlakviða Volsunga saga Atlamál. Polish Chronicle represents Attila name Aquila. In World War I Allied propaganda referred Germans Huns based 1900 speech Emperor Wilhelm II praising military prowess according Jawaharlal Nehru Glimpses World History.
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Common questions
What is the origin of Attila's name?
Scholars have debated the linguistic roots of Attila's name for centuries with proposals ranging from Gothic to Turkic origins. Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm suggested it derives from Gothic nouns meaning little father while Omeljan Pritsak considered it a composite title translating to oceanic universal ruler. In 2025 Svenja Bonmann and Simon Fries hypothesized the name could come from an Old Arin adjective meaning quicker or quite quick.
Who wrote about Attila's appearance and life?
Priscus was a Byzantine diplomat who served as a witness to events at the Hunnic court in 449 and recorded the only known physical description of Attila. His history covering the period from 430 to 476 survives today only in fragments cited extensively by 6th-century historians Procopius and Jordanes. Marcellinus Comes described relations between the Huns and the Eastern Roman Empire during the same era while Hungarian writers of the 12th century added their own legends.
When did Attila die and what caused his death?
Attila died early months 453 following a feast celebrating his latest marriage to beautiful young Ildico. Conventional account from Priscus says he suffered severe bleeding possibly nosebleed choking stupor or internal bleeding ruptured esophageal varices caused years excessive alcohol consumption.
Where is the tomb of Attila located?
The tomb of Attila and the location of his capital remain undiscovered despite archaeological investigation uncovering some details about Hunnic lifestyle art and warfare. No traces of battles or sieges have been found yet and scholars continue to debate the exact burial site.
How many sons did Attila have and what happened to them?
Attila's sons Ellac Dengizich Ernak destroyed empire rash eagerness rule alike after his death in 453. His eldest son Ellac was killed in battle at Nedao 454 AD while brother Dengizich attempted renewed invasion across Danube 468 before being defeated and killed by Roman-Gothic general Anagast following year.
All sources
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