Caesar (title)

• 1. Julian Origins And Evolution

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  Sextus Julius Caesar, the first known bearer of this cognomen, lived centuries before his great-grandson seized power. Gaius Julius Caesar became dictator in perpetuity for only about a month before assassinated in 44 BC. His death did not restore the Republic but instead birthed the Second Triumvirate. This group included three generals, one being Julius's adopted son Gaius Octavius. Octavius took the name Gaius Julius Caesar to honor his adoptive father. He styled himself simply as Gaius Caesar to emphasize that relationship. A lengthy civil war ended with Octavius controlling the entire Roman world by 30 BC. In 27 BC, the Senate granted him the honorific Augustus. He dropped all other names except Caesar, treating it as a family name. The precedent was set: an emperor would designate his successor by adopting him and giving him the name Caesar. Tiberius followed this example on the 26th of June 4 AD, restyling himself as Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus. Claudius became the fourth emperor to assume the name without prior adoption. He was a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty through maternal lineage. Claudius adopted Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, giving him the name Caesar alongside his own title. That stepson became Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus.

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• 2. Dynastic Succession Mechanics

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  Galba became the first emperor to assume both position and name without real claim after Nero died in AD 68. His reign lasted only months before Otho killed him. Otho then defeated Galba's heir Piso Licinianus. Vespasian restored order in AD 69, establishing the Flavian dynasty. He ruled as Imperator Caesar Vespasianus Augustus. The placement of Caesar varied among early emperors. Some placed it right before their cognomen like Vespasian or Trajan. Others put it after like Galba or Nerva. Antoninus Pius finally standardized the imperial formula. Born Titus Aurelius Antoninus, he became Titus Aelius Caesar Antoninus after adoption. He ruled as Imperator Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius. Heir-apparents added Caesar to their names, placing it after their cognomen. Caesars occasionally received the honorific princeps iuventutis meaning First Among Youth. Starting with the third century, nobilissimus Most Noble also appeared. This system solidified the link between the title and designated heirs. Almost all caesares would be killed before or alongside their fathers during chaotic periods. Only Gordian III successfully obtained the rank of augustus and ruled for some time.

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• 3. Crisis Of The Third Century

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  The popularity of using Caesar to designate heirs increased throughout the third century. Many soldier-emperors named sons as heirs with this title. Names included Maximinus Thrax, Philip the Arab, Decius, Trebonianus Gallus, Gallienus, and Carus. Except for Verus Maximus and Valerian II, they were later promoted to augustus within their father's lifetime. Hostilian and Numerian succeeded as augusti after their fathers died. The Gallic Empire operated autonomously from 260 to 274. Tetricus I appointed his heir Tetricus II as caesar and consular colleague. Despite these efforts, succession remained unstable. Almost all caesares died before or alongside their fathers. Some outlived them for only months like Hostilian. The sole caesar to rule in his own right was Gordian III. He was heavily controlled by his court even after promotion. The granting of this title did not make succession more stable during chaos. The crisis period saw rapid turnover of rulers who claimed legitimacy through adoption. Sons often became co-rulers but rarely survived long enough to inherit fully.

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• 4. Tetrarchy And Diarchy Systems

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  Diocletian established the Tetrarchy in 293 as a system of rule by four men. Two senior emperors held the style Augustus while two junior colleagues held nobilissimus Caesar. Junior colleagues retained the title Caesar upon becoming full emperors. These figures are sometimes called emperors despite being clearly subordinate to the augusti. The Tetrarchy collapsed when Diocletian stepped down in 305. A lengthy civil war followed until Constantine reunited the Empire in 324. He defeated Eastern emperor Licinius. The tetrarchic division of power ended though praetorian prefectures remained divided. Constantine had four Caesars at death: sons Constantius II, Constantine II, Constans and nephew Dalmatius. Eldest son Crispus executed earlier in mysterious circumstances. Only three sons succeeded him while Dalmatius died summer 337 in murky circumstances. Constantius II nominated cousins Constantius Gallus and Julian in the 350s. He first executed Gallus then fought Julian before his own death. After Julian's revolt of 360, the title fell out of fashion temporarily. Emperors preferred elevating sons directly to Augustus starting with Gratian in 367. Revival came in 408 when Constantine III gave it to son Constans II. Theodosius II bestowed it on nephew Valentinian III in 424. Palladius became last Caesar in Western Empire in 455.

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• 5. Byzantine Court Hierarchy

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  Caesar or Kaisar remained a senior court title in the Eastern Byzantine Empire. Originally used for heir apparent, it was first among awarded dignities. From reign of Theodosius I, most emperors raised heirs to co-emperors as Augustus. Hence the title went to second- and third-born sons or close relatives. Alexios Mosele received it as son-in-law of Theophilos who ruled 829, 842. Bardas served as uncle and chief minister of Michael III ruling 842, 867. Nikephoros II awarded title to father Bardas Phokas during rule 963, 969. Exceptional case involved Bulgarian khan Tervel receiving dignity from Justinian II in 705. George II of Georgia obtained title in 1081 from brother-in-law Nikephoros III. Epithet eutychestatos meaning Most Fortunate commonly attached to title. Office enjoyed extensive privileges with great prestige and power. When Alexios I Komnenos created sebastokrator title, kaisar dropped to third importance. Manuel I Komnenos further demoted it after creating despot title in 1143, 1118. It remained third place until Fall of Constantinople nearly three centuries later. In mid-14th century Book Of Offices by pseudo-Kodinos, rank came after sebastokratōr. Pseudo-Kodinos recorded caesar equal in precedence to panhypersebastos. Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos raised nephew Michael Tarchaneiotes to protovestiarios rank. Under Andronikos II Palaiologos, megas domestikos reached same eminence when awarded future emperor John VI Kantakouzenos.

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• 6. Ottoman Imperial Claims

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  Caesar is official title used by Sasanid Persians for Roman and Byzantine emperors. Middle Persian term kēsar became Qaysar-i Rûm meaning Caesar of Romans. Following conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Ottoman sultan Mehmed II assumed Kayser-i Rûm. He claimed succession to Roman imperium through possession of city. Contemporary scholar George of Trebizond wrote seat of Roman Empire is Constantinople. He who remains Emperor of Romans is also Emperor of whole world. Gennadius II enthroned Ecumenical Patriarch with ceremonial elements by Sultan himself in 1454. Gennadius formally recognized Mehmed as successor to throne. Mehmed had blood lineage to Byzantine Imperial family via predecessor Orhan's marriage. Ottoman bureaucracy angered Austrians over use of Caesar title during diplomatic writings. Treaty Of Constantinople 1533 required Holy Roman Empire to give up Caesar usage. Russians defined Moscow as Third Rome were similarly sanctioned by Ottomans. Crimean Khanate raided Russia on numerous occasions ordered by Sultan. Ottomans stopped claiming political superiority over Holy Roman Empire with Treaty Of Zsitvatorok 1606. They ended claims over Russian Empire with Treaty Of Küçük Kaynarca 1774. This diplomatically recognized monarchs of two countries as equals to Ottoman Sultan for first time. Suleiman I called himself Roman Caesar in inscription at Bender Moldova dating from later period.

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