Constantine the Great
On the 27th of February 272, a boy named Constantine was born inside the city of Naissus. This settlement sat within Dardania, part of the province Moesia Superior. His father served as an officer in the Roman army under Emperor Aurelian. The young boy spent little time with his parent during these early years. By April 286, Diocletian declared Maximian co-emperor to rule the western provinces. Constantine went to live at the court of Diocletian in Nicomedia. He remained there as a virtual hostage to ensure his father's loyalty. The cultural environment in Nicomedia allowed him to mix with intellectuals from both pagan and Christian backgrounds. He received formal education in Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy. Some sources suggest he may have attended lectures by Lactantius, a Christian scholar residing in the city. During this period, he fought for Diocletian and Galerius in Asia. He campaigned against barbarians on the Danube in 296. Later he fought the Persians under Diocletian in Syria in 297. He also served under Galerius in Mesopotamia between 298 and 299.
In late spring or early summer of 305, Constantine requested leave to help his father campaign in Britain. After a long evening of drinking, Galerius granted the request. His later propaganda described how he fled the court that night before Galerius could change his mind. He rode from post-house to post-house at high speed. He hamstrung every horse in his wake to prevent pursuit. By morning, Galerius had woken to find Constantine too far away to catch. He joined his father in Gaul at Bononia before the summer of 305. They crossed the English Channel to reach Eboracum, modern York. This city was the capital of Britannia Secunda and home to a large military base. Constantine spent a year campaigning against Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall during summer and autumn. His father died on the 25th of July 306 in Eboracum. Before dying, Constantius declared support for raising his son as emperor. An Alamannic king named Chrocus then proclaimed Constantine as augustus. The troops loyal to his memory followed him in acclamation. Gaul and Britain quickly accepted his rule while Hispania rejected it.
Early in spring 312, Constantine crossed the Cottian Alps with about 40,000 soldiers. His army arrived bearing unfamiliar symbols on their standards and shields. According to Lactantius, he received direction in a dream to place a heavenly sign on soldier shields. He marked the letter Chi with a perpendicular line drawn through it. Eusebius described a vision seen at midday where he saw a trophy of cross light above the sun. The inscription read In Hoc Signo Vinces meaning In this sign thou shalt conquer. A medallion issued at Ticinum in 315 showed him wearing a helmet emblazoned with the Chi Rho symbol. On the 28th of October 312, Maxentius approached the keepers of Sibylline Books for guidance. They prophesied that the enemy of Romans would die that very day. Maxentius advanced north to meet Constantine near the Tiber River. His forces were twice the size of Constantine's army. Maxentius organized them facing the plain with backs to the river. Constantine ordered cavalry charges that broke Maxentius' horse guards. Infantry pushed many enemies into the Tiber where they drowned. Maxentius attempted to cross a temporary boat bridge but was pushed into the water by fleeing soldiers. He died drowning in the Tiber on the 28th of October 312.
In February 313, Constantine met Licinius in Milan to secure their alliance. They agreed on the so-called Edict of Milan during this meeting. This document granted full tolerance to Christianity and all other religions in the empire. It removed penalties for professing Christianity under which many had been martyred previously. The edict returned confiscated Church property to its owners. A similar edict had been issued in 311 by Galerius granting Christians rights to practice religion. That earlier decree did not restore any property however. The Edict of Milan included clauses stating all confiscated churches would be returned. Some scholars believe Helena adopted Christianity as an adult while others debate if Constantine converted her. Christian writers claim Constantine was over 40 years old when he declared himself Christian. Despite these declarations he waited until his deathbed to receive baptism. He believed baptism would release him from sins committed while emperor. He supported the Church financially and built basilicas throughout the empire. He granted privileges to clergy such as exemption from certain taxes. He promoted Christians to high office and returned property seized during persecution.
In 325 Constantine summoned the First Council of Nicaea to address theological disputes. Most famous for dealing with Arianism, it instituted the Nicene Creed. He enforced the council's prohibition against celebrating Lord's Supper before Jewish Passover. This marked a definite break of Christianity from Judaic tradition. From then on solar Julian calendar took precedence over lunisolar Hebrew calendar among Christian churches. North African bishops struggled with Christian bishops ordained by Donatus between 313 and 316. Three regional Church councils ruled against Donatus and the Donatist movement in North Africa. In 317 Constantine issued an edict to confiscate Donatist church property. He sent Donatist clergy into exile following this decision. His influence over Church councils allowed him to enforce doctrine and root out heresy. The Church's role became determining proper worship doctrines and dogma. He made new laws regarding Jews that were sometimes unfavourable but not harsher than predecessors. It became illegal for Jews to seek converts or attack other Jews who converted. They were forbidden to own Christian slaves or circumcise their slaves. Jewish clergy received same exemptions as Christian clergy.
Constantine decided to work on Greek city of Byzantium which offered advantages already rebuilt on Roman patterns. Septimius Severus and Caracalla had extensively rebuilt it during preceding century. The city was founded in 324 and dedicated on the 11th of May 330. It was renamed Constantinopolis meaning Constantine's City. Special commemorative coins were issued in 330 to honour the event. The capital would often be compared to old Rome as Nova Roma Constantinopolitana. Generations later stories claimed divine vision led Constantine to this spot. An angel no one else could see supposedly led him circuit around new walls. Figures of old gods were replaced or assimilated into Christian symbolism framework. Later there was story about True Cross relics protecting the new city. A cameo now at Hermitage Museum represented Constantine crowned by tyche of new city. Commemorative coins from 330s referred to city as Constantinopolis. Possible that emperor called city Second Rome by official decree reported by Socrates of Constantinople. The capital served as center for integration of East into Roman Empire.
Beginning mid-3rd century emperors began favouring equestrian order over senators. Senators stripped of legion command and most provincial governorships due to lack military upbringing. Such posts given to equestrians by Diocletian following practice enforced piecemeal. Exclusion of old aristocracy created need for rich men maintaining social order. To combat inflation he introduced solidus a new gold coin. This became standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than thousand years. Roman army reorganised to consist mobile units often around emperor serving campaigns against external enemies. Frontier-garrison troops capable countering barbarian raids but less able full-scale invasions. He pursued campaigns against tribes on Roman frontiers such as Franks Alemanni Goths Sarmatians. Resettled territories abandoned during Crisis Third Century with citizens Roman society. His administration separated civil and military authorities to strengthen empire structure. He built basilicas including Church Holy Sepulchre at site claimed tomb Jesus Jerusalem. Construction took over 30 years from date ordered completed affecting design challenges. Old St Peter's Basilica erected atop Saint Peter resting place creating unique architectural challenge.
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Common questions
When and where was Constantine the Great born?
Constantine the Great was born on the 27th of February 272 inside the city of Naissus within Dardania. This settlement was part of the province Moesia Superior during his early life.
How did Constantine become emperor after his father died in 306?
An Alamannic king named Chrocus proclaimed Constantine as augustus following the death of his father on the 25th of July 306 in Eboracum. The troops loyal to his memory followed him in acclamation while Gaul and Britain quickly accepted his rule.
What happened at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge on the 28th of October 312?
Maxentius died drowning in the Tiber River on the 28th of October 312 after his forces were defeated by Constantine. His army was twice the size of Constantine's but he organized them facing the plain with backs to the river before being pushed into the water.
Why is the Edict of Milan significant for Christianity in 313?
The Edict of Milan granted full tolerance to Christianity and all other religions in the empire when Constantine met Licinius in February 313. It removed penalties for professing Christianity and returned confiscated Church property to its owners.
When was Constantinopolis founded and what was its original name?
Constantinopolis meaning Constantine's City was dedicated on the 11th of May 330 as a new capital built upon Greek city of Byzantium. Special commemorative coins were issued in 330 to honour the event and it served as center for integration of East into Roman Empire.