Republic
The Latin phrase res publica translates to 'public thing' or 'people's thing'. Cicero, a Roman writer, translated the Greek word politeia into this Latin term. Renaissance scholars later rendered it as republic in various European languages. Aristotle described politeia as a form of government where citizens govern for the public good. Plato titled his major work on political philosophy Politeia, though modern translations often use The Republic. The term did not necessarily imply a specific regime type in ancient times. Roman writers used res publica to refer to the state and government even during the Empire period. Medieval Northern Italian city-states adopted commune or signoria based governments. Writers like Giovanni Villani described these states using terms such as libertas populi, meaning a free people. Leonardo Bruni preferred classical terminology to describe non-monarchical states in the 15th century.
Ancient Athens and the Roman Republic established early republican precedents that differ from modern systems. The Roman Republic lasted from 509 BC until the establishment of the Empire in 27 BC. A Senate composed of wealthy aristocrats wielded significant influence within this system. Popular assemblies of all free citizens possessed power to elect magistrates and pass laws. Polybius expanded on mixed government ideas between benign monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. Cicero's De re publica remains the most important Roman work in this tradition. Most Greek republics were annexed to Alexander's Macedonian Empire. Carthage was conquered by the expanding Roman Republic before it became an empire itself. Phoenician city-states along the Levantine coast achieved collective rule starting from the 11th century BC. Tyre abolished its king system under Persian rule and adopted suffetes who held power for six-year mandates. Arwad stands as one of the earliest known examples where people rather than monarchs were sovereign. The Israelite confederation during the era of Judges has been considered a type of republic. Early Indian republican institutions may have existed as early as the 6th century BC. The Shakyas, Koliyas, Mallakas, and Licchavis followed republican government around Gautama Buddha's time.
Venice and Genoa emerged as powerful trading ports controlling large parts of the Mediterranean through naval power. Bartholomew of Lucca, Brunetto Latini, Marsilius of Padua, and Leonardo Bruni saw medieval Italian city-states as heirs to Greece and Rome. Fifty-one largest towns within the Holy Roman Empire became free imperial cities with locally held power. Swiss rural farmers and town merchants joined rebellion against Habsburg control, establishing the Swiss Confederacy. Novgorod and Pskov adopted republican forms in Russia during the 12th and 13th centuries before being conquered by Muscovy. The Ahiler merchant fraternities established a state centered on Ankara after the Seljuk Sultanate collapsed. More than 200 risings occurred in Holy Roman Empire towns during the late Middle Ages. The Ciompi Revolt in Florence exemplified common revolts by lower classes. Property qualifications or guild membership limited voting rights in many states. Council members were often hereditary or appointed by existing councils rather than elected directly. The majority population lacked political power while great elite patricians controlled governance. Riots and revolts remained common features of these early mercantile republics.
The Dutch Republic emerged from rejection of Spanish Habsburg rule beginning in 1566. Formal independence declaration in 1581 declared King Philip's throne vacant before Estates decided sovereignty in 1588. English Civil War began in 1641 with Puritans spearheading revolt funded by London merchants. James Harrington, Algernon Sidney, and John Milton became first writers arguing for rejecting monarchy. The Cromwell regime discredited republicanism among Enlightenment thinkers who feared anarchy or tyranny. Voltaire opposed absolutism while remaining strongly pro-monarchy. Rousseau admired Corsica's republican experiment between 1755 and 1769 as ideal small self-governing communes. Montesquieu felt city-states should ideally be republics but preferred limited monarchies for larger territories. United States Declaration of Independence firmly rejected monarchy and embraced republicanism after British support for combat troops. Thomas Paine's Common Sense tract laid out case for republican ideals to the public. Constitution went into effect in 1789 creating strong federal republic replacing Articles of Confederation ratified in 1781. French Revolution declared republic only after Flight to Varennes removed sympathy for king. Louis XVI was sent to guillotine following this shift. Napoleon extinguished oldest European republics including Venice, Genoa, and Dutch Republic during Napoleonic period.
Most remaining European colonies gained independence following World War II and became republics. France encouraged establishment of republics in former colonies while United Kingdom created Commonwealth realms linked under same monarch. Newly independent countries in Africa and Asia revised constitutions and became republics instead. Britain installed local monarchies in Middle East including Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman, Yemen, and Libya. Subsequent decades saw revolutions and coups overthrowing many installed monarchs. Middle East remains only world region where several large states ruled by monarchs retain almost complete political control. Portugal established Republic on the 5th of October 1910 following Lisbon Regicide in 1908. Italy officially became republic after the 2nd of June 1946 referendum won 54.3% vote for republican side. Festa della Repubblica celebrates this day annually as Italian national holiday. Swiss cantons like Geneva and Ticino remain officially referred to as republics reflecting historical independence. Former Soviet Union member states had to meet criteria including population over one million ethnic majority. Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia composed six republics each with parliament, government, constitution, and citizenship institute.
Most modern republics use president title for head of state originally from presiding officer committee role. Virginia adopted President of Council title in 1608 making it first colony with such designation. United States became first republic adopting President of United States title when new constitution written. Presidential systems grant president substantial authority and central political role while parliamentary systems make presidency ceremonial. Germany, Italy, India, and Trinidad and Tobago operate as parliamentary republics similar to constitutional monarchies. Semi-presidential systems combine active president with prime minister holding important powers. France experiences cohabitation when ruling cabinet members come from opposing political factions than president. Bosnia and Herzegovina, San Marino, and Switzerland feature committees rather than single person as head of state. Roman Republic elected two consuls for one-year term by comitia centuriata comprising all adult freeborn males. Electoral college chosen by States officially elects US president though all states chose electors by popular election since 1832. Wyoming citizens received 3.6 times more electoral vote representation than California citizens in 2016. Ireland elected presidents have only ceremonial powers within its parliamentary system. Poland-Lithuanian Commonwealth developed Golden Liberty allowing 500,000 nobles wide suffrage for elective monarchy.
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Common questions
What does the Latin phrase res publica mean?
The Latin phrase res publica translates to public thing or people's thing. Cicero, a Roman writer, translated the Greek word politeia into this Latin term.
When did the Roman Republic last from and until when?
The Roman Republic lasted from 509 BC until the establishment of the Empire in 27 BC. A Senate composed of wealthy aristocrats wielded significant influence within this system while popular assemblies possessed power to elect magistrates and pass laws.
Which city-states adopted republican forms in Russia during the 12th and 13th centuries?
Novgorod and Pskov adopted republican forms in Russia during the 12th and 13th centuries before being conquered by Muscovy. These states existed alongside Swiss rural farmers and town merchants who joined rebellion against Habsburg control to establish the Swiss Confederacy.
On what date did Italy officially become a republic after a referendum?
Italy officially became republic after the 2nd of June 1946 referendum won 54.3% vote for republican side. Festa della Repubblica celebrates this day annually as Italian national holiday.
Who was the first colony to adopt President of Council title in 1608?
Virginia adopted President of Council title in 1608 making it first colony with such designation. United States became first republic adopting President of United States title when new constitution written.