Theodosius I

• 1. A Spanish General's Return

  ›

  The year 347 marked the birth of a boy in Hispania who would one day command the Roman legions. His father, Theodosius the Elder, served as a high-ranking general under Emperor Valentinian I. This family held minor landed aristocratic status in the Iberian peninsula, though their roots there remained unclear to historians. Young Theodosius grew up among soldiers and participated in his father's campaigns across various provinces. By 368, he accompanied his father on an expedition to Britain to suppress the Great Conspiracy. He received his first independent command by 374 when appointed dux of Moesia Prima along the Danube frontier. In autumn 374, he successfully repulsed Sarmatian incursions into his sector. Not long after this victory, his father fell from imperial favor and was executed under mysterious circumstances. The future emperor felt compelled to retire to his estates in Hispania shortly thereafter.

• 2. The Gothic Settlement Treaty

  ›

  News arrived that eastern Roman Emperor Valens had been killed at the Battle of Adrianople in August 378 against invading Goths. The disastrous defeat left much of Rome's military leadership dead or discredited. Western Emperor Gratian gave Theodosius control of Illyricum for the duration of the conflict. The new emperor implemented stern recruiting measures, conscripting farmers and miners even when they self-mutilated to avoid service. Some foreign recruits were exchanged with more reliable Roman garrison troops stationed in Egypt. During the second half of 379, Theodosius won minor victories over individual bands of raiders based at Thessalonica. However, a serious defeat occurred in 380 which was blamed on treachery by new barbarian recruits. A life-threatening illness prompted him to request baptism during autumn 380. By November 380, the military situation stabilized enough for Theodosius to move his court to Constantinople. In January 381, he received the visit and submission of minor Gothic leader Athanaric. After negotiations lasting several months, Romans and Goths concluded a settlement on the 3rd of October 382. The Goths were allowed to settle tracts of Roman land south of the Danube as autonomous allies rather than fully submitting to Roman authority.

• 3. Civil Wars And Imperial Unification

  ›

  The peace with Magnus Maximus broke in 387 when Valentinian II escaped to the east reaching Thessalonica in summer or autumn 387. Valentinian's sister Galla married the eastern emperor at Thessalonica in late autumn that year. Theodosius recovered Italy from Magnus Maximus for Valentinian in summer 388. On the 28th of August 388, Maximus was executed after fighting at the Battle of Poetovio. Now de facto ruler of the Western empire, Theodosius celebrated victory in Rome on the 13th of June 389. He stayed in Milan until 391 installing loyalists including Frankish general Arbogast as magister militum of the West. In 391, Theodosius left trusted general Arbogast to be magister militum for Western Emperor Valentinian II while attempting to rule entire empire from Constantinople. On the 15th of May 392, Valentinian II died at Vienna in Gaul either by suicide or plot by Arbogast. Arbogast had Valentinian's master of correspondence Eugenius proclaimed emperor in West at Lugdunum on the 22nd of August 392. The battle began on the 5th of September 394 with Theodosius's full frontal assault on Eugenius forces. Thousands of Goths died during this engagement. The next day, a natural phenomenon known as Bora produced hurricane-strength winds disrupting Eugenius line. Eugenius camp stormed and he captured soon after executed. On the 6th of September 394, Theodosius defeated Eugenius at Battle of Frigidus according to Socrates Scholasticus. Arbogast killed himself on the 8th of September.

• 4. The Thessalonica Massacre

  ›

  Best estimate places the massacre of local civilians by Roman troops in April 390 within Thessalonica Greece. Most reliable source is Historia ecclesiastica written by Sozomen about 442 which identifies murdered official as Butheric commanding general field army Illyricum. A popular charioteer tried to rape cup-bearer leading to his arrest and imprisonment by Butheric. Populace demanded chariot racer release when Butheric refused causing general revolt costing him life. Soldiers made random arrests in hippodrome performing few public executions demonstrating imperial disfavor but citizenry objected. Soldiers realizing surrounded by angry citizens perhaps panicked forcibly cleared hippodrome costing several thousands lives local inhabitants. Theodosius was not present when massacre occurred since court remained Milan. Several scholars think Theodosius ordered massacre excess volcanic anger though others disagree. Peter Brown points empire established decision making process requiring emperor listen ministers before acting. Some indication exists Theodosius did listen counselors receiving bad misleading advice. J.F. Matthews argues Emperor first tried punish city selective executions getting out hand. Ambrose bishop Milan wrote letter offering different way save face restore public image. He urged semi-public demonstration penitence telling emperor he would not give communion until done. Wolf Liebeschuetz notes Theodosius duly complied coming church without imperial robes until Christmas when Ambrose openly admitted him communion.

• 5. Nicene Christianity Established

  ›

  On the 28th of February 380, Theodosius along with Gratian and Valentinian II issued Edict of Thessalonica addressing Constantinople. Only Christians believing consubstantiality God Father Son Holy Spirit could style themselves catholic having places worship officially recognized churches. Deviants labeled heretics described insane. Recent scholarship rejects former views edict key step establishing Christianity official religion Empire since aimed exclusively Constantinople seeming unnoticed contemporaries outside capital. German ancient historian writes Edict neither anti-pagan nor antisemitic declaring Christianity official religion giving advantage Christians over other faiths. Mandates issued years after 380 show Theodosius made no requirement pagans Jews convert Christianity nonetheless first known secular Roman law positively define religious orthodoxy. Robinson Thornton states Theodosius began taking steps repress Arianism immediately baptism 380. On the 26th of November 380 two days arriving Constantinople expelled Homoian bishop Demophilus appointing Meletius patriarch Antioch Gregory Nazianzus patriarch Constantinople. May 381 summoned new ecumenical council Constantinople repair schism East West basis Nicene orthodoxy. Council defined orthodoxy including Third Person Trinity Holy Spirit equal Father proceeding Him. Condemned Apollonarian Macedonian heresies clarified jurisdictions bishops according civil boundaries dioceses ruled Constantinople second precedence Rome.

• 6. Temple Destruction And Archaeology

  ›

  Contemporary archaeology found area most destruction temples Christians took place territory around Constantinople diocese Orientis under Theodosius prefect Maternus Cynegius where archaeological digs discovered several destroyed temples. Theodosius officially supported temple preservation but Garth Fowden says Cynegius did not limit himself to Theodosius official policy commissioning temple destruction wide scale employing military command purpose Christopher Haas also says Cynegius oversaw temple closings prohibition sacrifices destruction temples Osrhoene Carrhae Beroea. Earlier scholars believed Cynegius actions part tide violence temples continued throughout 390s Grindle Gilbert Gibbon Catholic Encyclopedia article on Theophilus New Advent Web Site. However recent archaeological discoveries undermined view. Archaeological evidence violent destruction temples fourth early fifth centuries entire Mediterranean limited handful sites. Temple destruction attested 43 cases written sources only four confirmed archaeological evidence. Trombley MacMullen say part creates discrepancy details historical sources commonly ambiguous unclear Malalas claimed Constantine destroyed all temples then said Theodosius did then said Constantine converted churches. No evidence desire emperor institute systematic destruction temples anywhere Theodosian Code no evidence archaeological record extensive temple destruction ever took place.

• 7. Theodosian Renaissance And Legacy

  ›

  Art historian David Wright states art era around year 400 reflects optimism traditional polytheists likely connected what Ine Jacobs calls renaissance classical styles art Theodosian period AD 379-395 often referred modern scholarship Theodosian renaissance. Forum Tauri Constantinople renamed redecorated Forum Theodosius including column triumphal arch honor. Missorium Theodosius city Aprodisias statue emperor base Obelisk Theodosius columns Theodosius Arcadius diptych Probus commissioned court reflect similar renaissance classicism. Two obelisks shipped Romans Karnak Alexandria 13/12 BC Constantius II one Lateran obelisk shipped Rome 357 Wirsching says Romans watched learned Egyptians transport large heavy objects constructed special sea-going version Nile vessels double-ship three hulls. 390 Theodosius oversaw removal other Constantinople Linda Safran says relocating obelisk motivated victory tyrants most likely Maximus Magnus son Victor now known obelisk Theodosius stands Hippodrome Constantinople long Roman circus once center public life. White marble base entirely covered bas-reliefs documenting Theodosius imperial household engineering feat removing obelisk Constantinople. Theodosius imperial family separated nobles spectators imperial box cover mark status perspective style served key monument identifying so-called Theodosian court style usually described renaissance earlier Roman classicism. Theodosius suffered disease involving severe edema died Mediolanum Milan the 17th of January 395 body lay state palace forty days funeral held cathedral the 25th of February presence Stilicho Honorius Bishop Ambrose delivered panegyric De obitu Theodosii praising suppression paganism. On the 8th of November 395 body transferred Constantinople buried Church Holy Apostles according Chronicon Paschale interred porphyry sarcophagus described 10th century Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus work De Ceremoniis.