Julian (emperor)
On the 6th of November 355, a young man named Flavius Claudius Julianus stood before Emperor Constantius II in Mediolanum and received the title of Caesar of the West. He was only twenty-four years old and had spent most of his life under house arrest after his father was executed during the purges following Constantine's death in 337. The emperor gave him a small retinue and sent him to Gaul with instructions to remain a figurehead while experienced prefects managed real power. Julian quickly proved himself more than a puppet when Germanic tribes began raiding across the Rhine frontier. In 356 he led an army to Colonia Agrippina, now Cologne, recovering towns that had fallen into Frankish hands. His forces wintered near Senon, close to Verdun, where a tactical error left him virtually trapped for months by a Frankish siege until General Marcellus lifted the blockade. Relations between Julian and Marcellus deteriorated rapidly, leading to Marcellus's replacement by Severus as magister equitum.
The following year brought a coordinated Roman operation against Alamanni forces. King Chnodomarius commanded a confederation of Alamanni troops that attacked Julian and Severus at Argentoratum, modern Strasbourg. Roman soldiers numbered fewer than their opponents, yet they achieved overwhelming victory. During the battle, six hundred horsemen on the right wing deserted, but the terrain favored the Romans who routed the enemy and drove them into the river. Chnodomarius was captured and later sent to Mediolanum. Ammianus Marcellinus, who fought in the battle, described Julian commanding events on the field and rejecting his soldiers' acclamation to make him Augustus. He rewarded their valor instead of accepting their offer of imperial power.
In February 360, Constantius II ordered more than half of Julian's Gallic troops to join his eastern army. The order bypassed Julian entirely and went directly to military commanders. Troops of the Petulantes refused to leave Gaul and sparked an insurrection. Officers distributed anonymous tracts expressing complaints against Constantius while fearing for Julian's fate. Florentius, the praetorian prefect who usually stayed close to Julian, organized supplies in Vienne and avoided the conflict. The troops proclaimed Julian Augustus in Paris, forcing him onto a path toward civil war. He led campaigns against Attuarian Franks from June to August 360 and began openly using the title Augustus by November, issuing coins with or without Constantius's name.
By spring 361, Julian marched his army into Alamanni territory and captured King Vadomarius, claiming the king had conspired with Constantius. He divided forces across Raetia, northern Italy, and down the Danube on boats. His general Nevitta secured the pass of Succi into Thrace, placing Julian well outside his comfort zone. In June, forces loyal to Constantius captured Aquileia on the north Adriatic coast, threatening to cut Julian off from his main force. Julian besieged the city with 23,000 men while waiting in Naissus, writing letters to Greek cities justifying his actions. Only one letter to Athens survives intact. Civil war ended when Constantius died on the 3rd of November 361, allegedly naming Julian as his successor to prevent further bloodshed.
Julian's first campaign in 356 took him to the Rhine where he engaged Frankish inhabitants and recovered Colonia Agrippina, now Cologne. After securing success, he withdrew for winter to Gaul, distributing forces to protect various towns. He chose Senon near Verdun as a base, but this proved a tactical error when a large Frankish contingent besieged the town. Julian remained virtually captive there for several months until General Marcellus lifted the siege. Relations between Julian and Marcellus deteriorated quickly, leading to Marcellus's replacement by Severus.
The following year brought coordinated Roman operations against Germanic peoples who had spilled across the river onto the west bank. Magister peditum Barbatio advanced from Milan with 25,000 soldiers to Augst near the Rhine bend, then moved north. Julian with 13,000 troops would move east from Durocortorum, modern Rheims. While Julian was in transit, Laeti attacked Lugdunum, Lyon, delaying his movement. This left Barbatio unsupported deep in Alamanni territory, forcing him to withdraw retracing his steps. The coordinated operation collapsed without either commander achieving their objectives.
King Chnodomarius led a confederation of Alamanni forces against Julian and Severus at Argentoratum. Romans were heavily outnumbered yet achieved overwhelming victory through terrain advantages. During battle heat, six hundred horsemen on the right wing deserted, yet the enemy was routed and driven into the river. King Chnodomarius was captured and sent to Mediolanum. Ammianus Marcellinus, participant in the battle, portrayed Julian commanding events on the battlefield and described how soldiers acclaimed him as Augustus, an acclamation he rejected while rebuking them. He later rewarded soldiers for their valor rather than accepting imperial power.
Rather than chase routed enemies across the Rhine, Julian followed the river northward, the same route he had taken the previous year returning to Gaul. At Moguntiacum, Mainz, he crossed the Rhine in an expedition penetrating deep into what is now Germany. Three local kingdoms submitted to Roman authority, demonstrating that Rome remained present and active in the area. On his return journey to winter quarters in Paris, he dealt with Franks who controlled abandoned forts along the Meuse river. In 358, Julian gained victories over Salian Franks on the Lower Rhine, settling them in Toxandria within the empire north of modern Tongeren. Chamavi tribes were expelled back to Hamaland.
At the end of 357, Julian prevented a tax increase by Gallic praetorian prefect Florentius and personally took charge of Belgica Secunda province. This marked his first experience with civil administration, where liberal education from Greece influenced his views. The role properly belonged to the praetorian prefect, yet Julian clashed repeatedly with Florentius over administration. His priority as Caesar and nominal ranking commander was driving out barbarians breaching the Rhine frontier. He sought civilian support necessary for operations while showing Germanic army benefits of Imperial rule. Rebuilding stable conditions in devastated cities and countryside became essential for winning popular support.
On the 5th of March 363, despite omens against the campaign, Julian departed Antioch with approximately 65,000 to 83,000 men heading north toward the Euphrates. Embassies from small powers offered assistance en route, none accepted though he ordered Armenian King Arsaces to muster an army awaiting instructions. Crossing near Hierapolis, he moved eastward to Carrhae giving impression that chosen route down Tigris was intended. A force of 30,000 soldiers under Procopius and Sebastianus marched further east to devastate Media alongside Armenian forces where main Persian forces soon directed themselves.
Julian's strategy lay elsewhere. He had a fleet built of over 1,000 ships at Samosata to supply his army marching down Euphrates plus 50 pontoon ships facilitating river crossings. Procopius and Armenians would march down Tigris meeting Julian near Ctesiphon. Ultimate aim seemed regime change replacing king Shapur II with brother Hormisdas. Feigning march further eastward, Julian's army turned south to Circesium at confluence of Abora and Euphrates arriving beginning April. Passing Dura on the 6th of April, army made good progress bypassing towns after negotiations or besieging those opposing him. End of April saw Romans capture Pirisabora fortress guarding canal approach from Euphrates to Ctesiphon on Tigris.
By mid-May, army reached vicinity of heavily fortified Persian capital Ctesiphon where Julian partially unloaded fleet having troops ferried across Tigris by night. Romans gained tactical victory before city gates driving Persians back into city. However, Persian capital not taken because master-general Victor ordered soldiers not entering open gates pursuing defeated Persians fearing encirclement within walls. Main Persian army remained large approaching while Romans lacked clear strategic objective. In council following, Julian's generals persuaded him not mounting siege against city given impregnability defenses and fact that Shapur would soon arrive with large force.
Julian set off east into Persian interior ordering destruction of fleet proving hasty decision since they stood wrong side of Tigris without clear retreat means. Persians began harassing them from distance burning any food in Roman path. Julian had not brought adequate siege equipment doing nothing when finding Persians flooded area behind forcing withdrawal. Second council of war on the 16th of June 363 decided best course leading army back safety Roman borders northward to Corduene rather than through Mesopotamia.
During withdrawal, Julian's forces suffered several attacks from Sassanid forces. One engagement on the 26th of June 363 at indecisive Battle of Samarra near Maranga in Mesopotamia saw Julian wounded when Sassanid army raided column. Pursuing retreating enemy choosing speed over caution taking only sword leaving coat mail behind. Received wound from spear reportedly piercing lower lobe liver and intestines. Wound not immediately deadly treated by personal physician Oribasius of Pergamum making every attempt treating including irrigation dark wine and procedure known as gastrorrhaphy suturing damaged intestine. Despite efforts third day major hemorrhage occurred emperor died during night.
After gaining purple, Julian started religious reformation empire intended restoring lost strength Roman state supporting restoration Hellenistic polytheism state religion. Laws tended targeting wealthy educated Christians aiming destroying Christianity but driving religion out governing classes empire much Chinese Buddhism driven back lower classes revived Confucian mandarinate 13th century China. Restored pagan temples confiscated since Constantine time simply appropriated wealthy citizens repealing stipends Constantine awarded Christian bishops removing privileges including right consulted appointments acting private courts reversing favors previously given Christians.
On the 4th of February 362, Julian promulgated edict guaranteeing freedom religion proclaiming all religions equal before law Roman Empire returning original religious eclecticism according which Roman state imposing any religion provinces. Edict seen act favor toward Jews upsetting Christians. Preference non-Christian non-philosophical view Iamblichus theurgy convinced him right outlawing Christian liturgy demanding suppression Christian Holy Mysteries Sacraments. School Edict required public teachers approved Emperor state paying supplementing much salaries preventing Christian teachers using pagan texts like Iliad widely regarded divinely inspired forming core classical education saying If they want learn literature Luke Mark Let them go back churches expound on them.
Edict dealt severe financial blow many Christian scholars tutors teachers depriving students. Tolerance Edict 362 decreed reopening pagan temples restitution confiscated temple properties return exile heretical Christian bishops censured excommunicated Church latter instance tolerance different religious views possibly attempt fostering schisms divisions Christian rivals since disputes orthodox Christian teaching could become quite fierce. Paganism shift under Julian popularity people army during brief reign suggest might bringing paganism back fore Roman public private life fact lifetime neither pagan nor Christian ideology reigning supreme greatest thinkers day arguing merits rationality each religion.
Most importantly pagan cause Rome still predominantly pagan empire not wholly accepted Christianity Even so Julian short reign did not stem tide Christianity emperor ultimate failure arguably attributed many religious traditions deities paganism promulgated Most pagans sought religious affiliations unique culture people internal divisions preventing creating one pagan religion Indeed term pagan simply convenient appellation Christians lump together believers system opposed Instead paganism came system observances historian characterized no more spongy mass tolerance tradition This system tradition shifted dramatically time Julian came power gone days massive sacrifices honoring gods Communal festivals involving sacrifice feasting once uniting communities now tearing apart Christian against pagan Civic leaders lacking funds much support holding religious festivals.
Julian wrote several works Greek some surviving modern day including Panegyric Honour Constantius written reassuring Constantius side and Panegyric Honour Eusebia expressing gratitude Empress support. The Heroic Deeds Constantius indicates supporting Constantius while being critical sometimes called second panegyric Constantius. Consolation Upon Departure Salutius grapples removal close advisor Gaul Letter Senate People Athens attempting explaining actions leading rebellion. Letter Themistius Philosopher responding ingratiating letter outlining Julian political reading To Cynic Heracleios setting Cynics straight regarding religious responsibilities.
To Mother Gods defense Hellenism Roman tradition written March 362 To Uneducated Cynics attacking Cynics thought not following principles Cynicism Caesars satire describing competition among Roman emperors best Strongly critical Constantine December 362 written Saturnalia festival beginning the 21st of December To King Helios attempting describe Roman religion seen Julian early 363 Misopogon Beard-Hater written satire self attacking people Antioch shortcomings.
Against Galileans polemic Christians survives fragments Cyril Alexandria giving extracts three first books refutation Contra Julianum These extracts do not give adequate idea work Cyril confessing venturing copy weightiest arguments Problems authenticity Julian works edited translated times since Renaissance most often separately translated Loeb Classical Library edition 1913 edited Wilmer Cave Wright Wright mentions problems surrounding vast collection letters ascribed Julian Collections existing today result many smaller collections containing varying numbers Julian works various combinations Laurentianus 58.16 largest collection letters ascribed Julian found containing 43 items origins unclear Joseph Bidez Francois Cumont compiled different collections 1922 arrived total 284 items 157 considered genuine 127 regarded spurious contrasts starkly Wright earlier mentioned collection containing only 73 items considered genuine along 10 apocryphal letters Michael Trapp notes comparing Bidez Cumont work Wright Bidez Cumont regard sixteen Wright genuine letters spurious Which works ascribed Julian very much debate.
Problems surrounding collection Julian works exacerbated fact motivated writer means possible more letters circulated despite short reign Julian himself attests large number letters writing letter itself likely genuine Religious agenda gave even more work average emperor seeking instruct newly styled pagan priests dealing discontented Christian leaders communities Example instructing pagan priests found fragment Vossianus MS inserted Letter Themistius Additionally hostility towards Christian faith inspired vicious counteractions Christian authors Gregory Nazianzus invectives against Julian Christians no doubt suppressed some Julian works well Christian influence still visible Wright much smaller collection Julian letters She comments letters suddenly cut contents become hostile towards Christians believing result Christian censorship Notable examples appear Fragment Letter Priest letter High-Priest Theodorus.
Julian succeeded short-lived Emperor Jovian reestablishing Christianity privileged position throughout Empire Libanius epitaph deceased emperor mentioning representations cities set him beside images gods honouring gods blessing besought prayer not vain extent literally ascended gods received share power themselves However similar action taken Roman central government dominated increasingly Christians ensuing decades Considered apocryphal report dying words Thou hast conquered Galilean supposedly expressing recognition Christianity becoming Empire state religion Phrase introduces 1866 poem Hymn Proserpine Algernon Charles Swinburne elaboration philosophic pagan might felt triumph Christianity Also ends Polish Romantic play Undivine Comedy written 1833 Zygmunt Krasiński.
As requested body buried Tarsus lying tomb outside city across road Maximinus Daia Chronicler Zonaras says later date body exhumed reburied near Church Holy Apostles Constantinople Constantine rest family lay Sarcophagus listed standing stoa there Constantine VII Porphyrogenetus Book Ceremonies lists tombs ending 43 stoa north lies cylindrically-shaped sarcophagus wretched body apostate Julian porphyry Roman colour Another sarcophagus porphyry Roman lies body Jovian ruled after Julian church demolished Ottomans fall Constantinople 1453 Today sarcophagus porphyry believed Jean Ebersolt Julian stands grounds Istanbul Archaeology Museum.
Many Church fathers viewed emperor hostility telling stories supposed wickedness death Sermon Saint John Chrysostom entitled Saints Juventinus Maximinus tells story two Julian soldiers Antioch overheard drinking party criticizing emperor religious policies taken custody According Chrysostom emperor deliberate effort avoiding creating martyrs disagreeing reforms Juventinus Maximinus admitted Christians refusing moderate stance Chrysostom urges audience visiting tomb martyrs. Fact Christian charities open pagans put aspect Roman citizens lives control Imperial authority under Church Thus Julian envisioned institution Roman philanthropic system caring behaviour morality pagan priests hope mitigating reliance pagans Christian charity saying These impious Galileans not only feed own poor ours also welcoming agapae attract children attracted cakes.
In 363 not long before leaving Antioch launch campaign against Persia keeping religious tolerance allowed Jews rebuilding temple Point rebuilding temple would invalidate Jesus prophecy destruction 70 Christians cited proof Jesus truth Fires broke stopping project Personal friend Ammianus Marcellinus wrote effort failure Temple ascribed Galilee earthquake 363 contemporary Orations St Gregory Nazianzen builders described driven against one another furious blast wind sudden heaving earth driving some seeking refuge church flame issued forth stopped them This according Gregory what all people nowadays report believe 18th century writer Edward Gibbon considered unreliable positing sabotage accident Divine intervention common view among Christian historians seen proof Jesus divinity Julian support Jews caused Jews calling Julian Hellene However believed most historians favor towards Jews attempt impeding growth Christianity opposed genuine affection Judaism.
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Common questions
When did Julian become emperor and what was his full name?
Flavius Claudius Julianus became Roman emperor on the 3rd of November 361 following the death of Constantius II. He held power until his death in June 363.
What major military campaigns did Julian lead against Germanic tribes?
Julian led campaigns against Frankish and Alamanni forces starting in 356 to recover Colonia Agrippina and defeat King Chnodomarius at Argentoratum. He later settled Salian Franks in Toxandria and expelled Chamavi tribes back to Hamaland during his time as Caesar of the West.
How did Julian die during his Persian campaign in 363?
Emperor Julian died on the night of the 26th of June 363 after being wounded by a spear that pierced his lower liver and intestines during the Battle of Samarra. His personal physician Oribasius attempted to treat the wound but a major hemorrhage occurred three days later causing his death.
What religious policies did Julian implement regarding Christianity and paganism?
Julian promulgated an edict on the 4th of February 362 guaranteeing freedom of religion while attempting to restore Hellenistic polytheism as the state religion. He revoked privileges granted to Christian bishops, reopened pagan temples, and issued laws targeting wealthy educated Christians to drive the faith from governing classes.
Where is the sarcophagus believed to contain Julian's remains located today?
The porphyry sarcophagus believed to hold Julian's body stands in the grounds of the Istanbul Archaeology Museum following its removal from Constantinople. The Ottoman Empire demolished the Church of the Holy Apostles where it was originally placed after the fall of Constantinople in 1453.