Caligula

• 1. Childhood Under Shadow

  ›

  Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus was born on the 31st of August in AD 12 at Antium. He was only four or five years old when he accompanied his father, Germanicus, and mother, Agrippina the Elder, on military campaigns across Germania. The soldiers gave him a miniature soldier's outfit including army boots called caligae. They nicknamed him Caligula, which means little boot. This childhood nickname would follow him for life despite his later attempts to distance himself from it. His father died in Antioch in Syria during AD 19 under suspicious circumstances that many believed involved poisoning by the provincial governor Gnaius Calpurnius Piso. Tiberius, the current emperor and Germanicus' uncle, became increasingly hostile toward the family. Agrippina returned to Rome with her six children where she entered into a bitter political feud with the aging emperor. The conflict eventually led to the destruction of her entire family. Caligula emerged as the sole male survivor of this systematic political purge. In AD 26, Tiberius withdrew from public life to the island of Capri. By AD 31, Caligula joined him there under close supervision. The adolescent Caligula lived under constant threat while learning to dissimulate his true feelings behind an obsequious manner. Tacitus described this period as evidence that his monstrous character was masked by hypocritical modesty. Winterling argues that any forthright protest would have certainly cost him his life.

  1518

• 2. Accession And Golden Age

  ›

  Tiberius died on the 16th of March in AD 37 at age 77. On that same day, Caligula was hailed as emperor by members of the Praetorian guard at Misenum. He entered Rome on the 28th or the 29th of March with the consensus of three orders: senate, equestrians, and common citizens. The Senate conferred upon him all powers at once rather than over the course of years like Augustus had done. Philo described the first seven months of Caligula's reign as a Golden Age of happiness and prosperity. Josephus claimed that in the first two years, Caligula's high-minded even-handed rule earned goodwill throughout the Empire. Suetonius wrote that Caligula was loved by many for being the beloved son of the popular Germanicus. Three months of public rejoicing ushered in the new reign. Caligula doubled the 500 sesterces payment to praetorian guardsmen that Tiberius had given. Every citizen in Rome received 150 sesterces while heads of households got twice that amount. Building projects on the Palatine hill were announced as part of these expenditures. Caligula took up his first consulship on the 1st of July, two months after succession. He accepted all titles except pater patriae which he refused until September 21st AD 37. He commemorated his father Germanicus with portraits on coinage and renamed September after him.

  2016

• 3. Illness And Psychological Shift

  ›

  Between mid-October and mid-November in AD 37, Caligula fell seriously ill through unknown causes. He hovered between life and death for about a month. Rome's public places filled with citizens who implored gods for his recovery. Some even offered their own lives in exchange for his survival. By late October, the emperor had recovered and embarked on what might have been a purge of suspected opponents. His relations with the Senate became sullied by forced suicides including that of Silanus, formerly his father-in-law. Gemellus, Caligula's adopted heir at age 18, was also disposed of. Suetonius offers several versions of Gemellus' death including being charged with taking an antidote and forced to kill himself. Several months later in early AD 38, Caligula forced suicide upon Macro without whose help he would not have survived. Drusilla died on June 19th AD 38 while married to Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. She was deified and renamed Panthea, becoming the first mortal woman in Roman history to be made a diva. Caligula declared a period of compulsory universal mourning following her death. These events clustered around the time of his illness led some historians to believe they contributed to a fundamental change in attitudes. Weidemann suggests the new emperor had learned much from Tiberius during this period.

  32122

• 4. Economic Policies And Financial Crisis

  ›

  Suetonius claims that Caligula squandered 2.7 billion sesterces in his first year alone. He addressed the treasury deficit by confiscating estates of wealthy individuals through false accusations or outright seizure. This financial crisis seems to have started in earnest around early AD 39 when confronting the Senate. Dio remarked the beginnings of a financial crisis in AD 39 connected to the cost of building projects at Baiae. Caligula introduced unprecedented taxes on taverns artisans slaves and hiring of slaves. He taxed edibles sold in the city litigation anywhere in the Empire weddings marriages porters wages and most infamously prostitutes. Citizens of provincial Italy lost their previous tax exemptions. Even though individual bills were small, cumulative taxes doubled overall across his brief reign. Josephus claimed these measures led to riotous protests at the Circus. Barrett remarks stories of mass executions there should almost certainly be dismissed as standard exaggeration. Property left to Tiberius but not collected passed to Caligula who considered himself entitled to share of every will. Centurions who acquired property by plunder were forced to turn over spoils to the state. Winterling traces allegations about noble tenants paying exorbitant rents for palace suites back to Cassius Dio's account for AD 40. No brothel is mentioned in this specific account despite later claims. Families occupying these rooms were effectively hostages under Praetorian supervision.

  1012

• 5. Confrontations With The Senate

  ›

  During AD 39, Caligula's relationship with the Senate deteriorated into outright hostility. He launched invective against the entire body reviewing current and past behavior. He accused them of servility treachery and hypocrisy in voting honors to Tiberius while alive. Caligula declared it would be folly to seek love or approval from such men since they hated him. When senators returned the next day they seemed to confirm his suspicions. They voted him a special guard of armed pretorians to protect him and guard statues. The Senate proposed raising his senatorial chair on a high platform even within the Senate house. They offered thanks expressing gratitude for allowing them to live when others had died. Winterling suggests Caligula's three subsequent consulships were vain attempts to make amends. Barrett perceives these as symbolic of continued intention to dominate senate and state. Most senators managed to survive Caligula's reign with persons and fortunes intact despite allegations of slaughter. Two of five consular senators tried for maiestas prospered under his rule beyond it. In early September he dismissed two suffect consuls citing inadequate celebration of his birthday. One of the dismissed consuls killed himself after which Caligula may have suspected conspiracy.

  1718

• 6. Military Campaigns And Foreign Policy

  ›

  In late AD 39 or early AD 40, Caligula ordered concentration of military forces in upper Germany. He made his way there with baggage trains including actors gladiators women and Praetorian detachments. Ancient historians report he was ill-prepared and retreated in panic though modern scholars suggest valid political reasons existed. Possibilities include operations against Chatti tribes around Hesse or Suebi east of Upper Rhine. Caligula used opportunities in Germany to seize wealth from rich allies suspected of treason. He executed Imperial legate Gaetulicus who was popular with troops according to Dio. Lepidus along with sisters Agrippina and Livilla were accused of conspiracy and executed or exiled. A senatorial embassy headed by Claudius arrived to congratulate him but received hostile reception. Claudius was supposedly dunked in the Rhine during winter contests held in Gaul. In spring AD 40, Caligula attempted to extend Roman rule into Britannia. Two legions named Primigeniae were raised for this purpose. Ancient sources depict Caligula as too cowardly to attack or mad while stories indicate mutinies. It is impossible to judge why army never embarked on invasion beyond possible chieftain acceding to demands. Suetonius reports orders to collect seashells as spoils of sea which may be mistranslation meaning siege engines. Conquest of Britannia later achieved during reign of successor Claudius.

  781113

• 7. Religious Controversies And Divine Claims

  ›

  Philo claims that Caligula costumed himself as various heroes and deities starting with Dionysos Herakles Dioscuri working up to Mercury Venus Apollo. These impersonations occurred during private pantomime performances witnessed during diplomatic visits. Philo took this as evidence emperor wanted veneration as living god despite Jewish monotheism. Augustus had once thrown party where guests dressed as Olympian gods including himself as Apollo. No one thought insane in consequence though event not repeated showing near-blasphemous disrespect. When Gallic shoemaker laughed seeing Caligula dressed as Jupiter pronouncing oracles from lofty place asked who he was. Shoemaker answered complete idiot whom Caligula appreciated for straightforward honesty. Dio claimed Caligula impersonated Jupiter to seduce women sometimes referred self as divinity in public meetings. Special interest in Jupiter confirmed by all surviving sources. Simpson believes Caligula considered Jupiter equal perhaps rival. He found replacement for aged priest of Diana at Lake Nemi reorganized Salii priests of Mars. As pontifex maximus he insisted Flamen Dialis could not swear imperial oath since it was nefas. Temple to Caligula possibly existed on Palatine funded by Senate vote but built by emperor himself.

  514

• 8. Assassination And Historical Legacy

  ›

  In early AD 41, Caligula was assassinated resulting from conspiracy by Praetorian Guard officers senators and courtiers. At least some conspirators planned opportunity to restore Roman Republic and aristocratic privileges. Their plan thwarted when Praetorians spontaneously chose uncle Claudius as next emperor. Caligula's death marked official end of Julii Caesares in male line though Julio-Claudian dynasty continued until Nero. Most surviving sources written by nobility and senate long after events purport describe. Modern commentaries seek explain position personality historical context dismissing many allegations as misunderstandings exaggeration mockery or malicious fantasy. Barrett asserts massive cash injection from inheritance gave Roman economy tremendous boost despite later spending exceeding income. Coins minted during reign now very rare due to limited quantities produced. Numismatists Harold Mattingly and Edward Sydenham criticize artistic style below Tiberius and Claudius especially portraits too hard lacking details. Pliny claims division of Mauretania work of Caligula while Dio states uprising subdued AD 42 by Paulinus and Geta. Confusion might mean decided divide province postponed because rebellion occurred first. First known equestrian governor Marcus Fadius Celer Flavianus held office AD 44.

  1920