Battle of Actium

• 1. Triumvirate Breakdown And Propaganda War

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  In 37 BC, the Second Triumvirate renewed its alliance at Tarentum for five years. The partnership collapsed when Octavian viewed Caesarion as a threat to his power. Antony had abandoned his wife, Octavia Minor, and moved to Egypt to begin a romance with Cleopatra VII. This shift turned many Roman politicians against him. They suspected he sought to rule Egypt while keeping command of eastern legions. In 34 BC, Antony and Cleopatra elevated Caesarion, then thirteen years old, to the title King of the Kings during the Donations of Alexandria. Octavian launched a propaganda war denouncing Antony as an enemy of Rome. He claimed Antony intended to establish a monarchy over the empire on behalf of Caesarion. Rumors spread that Antony planned to move the imperial capital to Alexandria. When the triumvirate expired on the last day of 33 BC, Antony wrote to the Senate declining reappointment. Octavian used this moment to strip Antony of legal authority.

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• 2. Strategic Maneuvers In Greece 32 BC

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  Military operations began in 32 BC when Agrippa captured Methone, a Greek town allied to Antony. Antony initially planned to attack Italy toward the end of 32 BC but found the sea guarded by Octavian's ships. He retired to winter at Patrae while his fleet lay in the Ambracian Gulf. His land forces encamped near the promontory of Actium. A tower and troops protected the opposite side of the narrow strait into the gulf. Early months passed without notable events except forays by Agrippa along the coasts of Greece. Troops landed near Antony's camp on the north side of the strait in August. Antony could not be tempted out despite these attacks. It took months for his full strength to arrive from various places where allies or ships had wintered. During this time, Agrippa continued attacking Greek towns along the coast. Cleopatra advised putting garrisons into strong towns and returning the main fleet to Alexandria. This movement was agreed upon after her large contingent gave weight to her advice. Octavian learned of this plan and debated how to prevent it before deciding to give battle.

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• 3. Tactical Dynamics Of The Naval Engagement

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  The two fleets met outside the Gulf of Actium on the morning of the 2nd of September. Antony commanded around 140 ships against Octavian's 260. Although Antony arrived with roughly 500 ships, he could not man all of them due to desertion and disease. His ships were mainly quinqueremes and quadriremes, heavier and wider than Octavian's vessels. These larger ships served as ideal weapon platforms but lacked maneuverability. Antony's personal flagship was a ten-galley warship carrying about 200 heavy marines, archers, and six ballista catapults. Octavian's fleet consisted largely of smaller Liburnian vessels that could outmaneuver Antony's ships in heavy surf. Agrippa developed the harpax device for grappling and boarding enemy ships more easily. Ballistas aimed at marines on fighting decks had an effective range of around 200 yards. Before the battle began, Quintus Dellius defected to Octavian bringing Antony's battle plans. By noon both fleets were in formation though Octavian refused to be drawn out until forced to attack.

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• 4. Cleopatra Flight And Antony Escape

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  Shortly after midday, Antony extended his line from shore protection to engage the enemy. Cleopatra's fleet retreated to open sea without engaging while a breeze sprang up in the right direction. Her Egyptian ships soon disappeared from sight. Antony did not observe the signal and believed it was panic so he followed the fleeing squadron. The contagion spread fast as sails unfurled everywhere and towers went by the board. Some ships fought on until nightfall when many blazed from firebrands thrown upon them. Antony transferred to a smaller vessel with his flag and managed to escape taking a few ships as escort. Those left behind were captured or sunk. J.M. Carter offers a differing account suggesting Antony gathered ships in a quasi-horseshoe formation near shore. He sent ships north to spread out Octavian's tightly arranged forces then seized a gap in the middle. With Cleopatra on her ship and himself on another, he sped through the gap abandoning his entire force. Making the best of the situation, Antony burned ships he could no longer man while clustering remaining vessels together.

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• 5. Conquest Of Egypt And Final Deaths

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  After losing his fleet, some 19 legions and 12,000 cavalry fled before Antony could engage Octavian in land battle. His army deserted leaving him a fugitive rebel without legal position. Cornelius Gallus advanced from Paraetonium while Octavian landed at Pelusium. Antony defeated by Gallus returned to Egypt advancing on Pelusium. Despite minor victory at Alexandria on the 31st of July 30 BC more men deserted leaving insufficient forces. A slight success over tired soldiers encouraged him to make general attack where he was decisively beaten. Failing to escape by ship, he stabbed himself in stomach upon mistakenly believing false rumors claiming Cleopatra had committed suicide. When he found Cleopatra still alive he insisted being taken to mausoleum where she hid dying in her arms. Cleopatra killed herself on the 12th of August 30 BC. Octavian had Caesarion killed later that month securing legacy as Caesar's only son. He spared Cleopatra's children by Antony except for Antony's older son. Octavian gave Antony and Cleopatra public military funeral in Rome with grand ceremony.

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• 6. Establishment Of The Roman Empire

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  Octavian's victory enabled him to consolidate power over Rome and its dominions. He adopted title Princeps meaning first citizen. In 27 BC the Senate awarded him title Augustus meaning revered. This became name known in later times. As Augustus he retained trappings of restored Republican leader but historians view consolidation of power as end of Republic. His victory gave sole uncontested control of Mare Nostrum or Our Sea which meant Roman Mediterranean. Egypt's surrender after Cleopatra's death marked demise of Hellenistic Period and Ptolemaic Kingdom turning it into Roman province. The victory consolidated his power over every Roman institution marking transition from republic to empire. Octavian celebrated triple triumph spread over three days: first for Illyria, second for Battle of Actium, third for conquest of Egypt. He showed little mercy to surrendered enemies before yet was given credit for pardoning many opponents after battle.

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• 7. Commemoration And Cultural Legacy

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  To commemorate victory Octavian founded nearby city Nicopolis City of Victory in 29 BC on southernmost promontory of Epirus opposite Actium at mouth of Ambracian Gulf. He built series memorials around battlefield and campsites. On hill north of newly founded Nicopolis at site where camped during war constructed Campsite Memorial dedicated to Neptune Mars and Apollo. Renowned for display bronze rostra rams taken from captured warships. At cape of Actium Octavian built Actian dekanaia another tropaion composed dedication whole set ten warships captured from enemy fleet. Situated down hill from Temple of Apollo Aktios renovated and enlarged following victory. Apollo Aktios deity repeatedly invoked post-war commemoration. Military Heritage published feature about battle August 2005 volume seven number one pages fifty-eight through sixty-three seventy-eight. The Actium Project continues research into naval aspects today.

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