Ancient Rome
Archaeological evidence of settlement around Rome starts to emerge in the middle of the 8th century BC. Large-scale organisation appears only then, with the first graves in the Esquiline Hill's necropolis. A clay and timber wall on the bottom of the Palatine Hill dates to that same period. Starting from 753 BC, the Romans started to drain the valley between the Capitoline and Palatine Hills. Today sits the Roman Forum where that drainage work took place. By the 6th century BC, the Romans were constructing the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline. They expanded to the Forum Boarium located between the Capitoline and Aventine Hills.
The Romans themselves had a founding myth attributing their city to Romulus and Remus. These sons were offspring of Mars and a princess of the mythical city of Alba Longa. The sons were sentenced to death but rescued by a wolf. They returned to restore the Alban king and found a city. After a dispute, Romulus killed Remus and became the city's sole founder. The area of his initial settlement on the Palatine Hill was later known as Roma quadrata or Square Rome. The story dates at least to the 3rd century BC. The later Roman antiquarian Marcus Terentius Varro placed the city's foundation to 753 BC.
Another legend recorded by Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus says Prince Aeneas led a group of Trojans on a sea voyage. They landed on the banks of the Tiber River after the Trojan War. A woman travelling with them named Roma torched their ships to prevent them from leaving again. They named the settlement after her. The Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid.
By the end of the 6th century BC, Rome and many of its Italian neighbours entered a period of turbulence. Archaeological evidence implies some degree of large-scale warfare. According to tradition and later writers such as Livy, the Roman Republic was established when the last of the seven kings of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, was deposed. A system based on annually elected magistrates and various representative assemblies was established. The most important magistrates were the two consuls who together exercised executive authority such as military command.
In the 4th century BC, Rome had come under attack by the Gauls. On the 16th of July 390 BC, a Gallic army under the leadership of tribal chieftain Brennus defeated the Romans at the Battle of the Allia. The Gauls looted and burned the city then laid siege to the Capitoline Hill for seven months. The Gauls agreed to give the Romans peace in exchange for 1000 pounds of gold. The Roman supervising the weighing noticed that the Gauls were using false scales. The Romans took up arms and defeated the Gauls. Their victorious general Camillus remarked With iron not with gold Rome buys her freedom.
In the 3rd century BC Rome faced a new and formidable opponent Carthage. The First Punic War began in 264 BC when the city of Messana asked for Carthage's help in their conflicts with Hiero II of Syracuse. After more than 20 years of war Rome defeated Carthage and a peace treaty was signed. The Second Punic War began with the audacious invasion of Hispania by Hannibal. He marched through Hispania to the Italian Alps. Hannibal's invasion lasted over 16 years ravaging Italy but ultimately Carthage was defeated in the decisive Battle of Zama in October 202 BC.
The Third Punic War began when Rome declared war against Carthage in 149 BC. Scipio Aemilianus entirely destroyed the city enslaved all the citizens and gained control of that region which became the province of Africa. All these wars resulted in Rome's first overseas conquests Sicily Hispania and Africa and the rise of Rome as a significant imperial power.
Political divisions in Rome split into one of two groups populares who hoped for the support of the people and optimates the best who wanted to maintain exclusive aristocratic control. Sulla overthrew all populist leaders and his constitutional reforms removed powers such as those of the tribune of the plebs that had supported populist approaches. Julius Caesar reconciled the two most powerful men in Rome Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus. They formed them into a new informal alliance including himself called the First Triumvirate.
Caesar conquered Gaul obtained immense wealth respect in Rome and the loyalty of battle-hardened legions. He became a threat to Pompey and was loathed by many. To avoid being stripped of his legions Caesar crossed the Rubicon River and invaded Rome in 49 BC. The Battle of Pharsalus was a brilliant victory for Caesar and he destroyed all of the optimates leaders. Pompey was murdered in Egypt in 48 BC. Caesar was now pre-eminent over Rome but he was murdered in 44 BC on the Ides of March by the Liberatores.
Octavian whom historians regard as Octavian due to Roman naming conventions arrived in Rome after Caesar's assassination. In 43 BC along with Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus he legally established the Second Triumvirate. Upon its formation 130 to 300 senators were executed and their property confiscated. In 42 BC the Senate deified Caesar as Divus Iulius. Octavian thus became Divi filius or the son of the deified.
In 27 BC at the age of 36 Octavian was the sole Roman leader. That year he took the name Augustus. That event is usually taken by historians as the beginning of Roman Empire. Officially the government was republican but Augustus assumed absolute powers.
The Julio-Claudian dynasty was established by Augustus. The emperors of this dynasty were Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius and Nero. While Caligula and Nero are usually remembered in popular culture as dysfunctional emperors Augustus and Claudius are remembered as successful in politics and the military. This dynasty instituted imperial tradition in Rome and frustrated any attempt to reestablish a Republic.
Augustus gathered almost all the republican powers under his official title princeps and diminished the political influence of the senatorial class. He created the Praetorian Guard and his reforms in the military creating a standing army with a fixed size of 28 legions ensured his total control over the army. His generals were responsible for field command gaining such commanders as Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Nero Claudius Drusus and Germanicus much respect from the populace and the legions.
Under Augustus' reign Roman literature grew steadily in what is known as the Golden Age of Latin Literature. Poets like Virgil Horace Ovid and Rufus developed a rich literature and were close friends of Augustus. Along with Maecenas he sponsored patriotic poems such as Virgil's epic Aeneid and historiographical works like those of Livy. Augustus continued the changes to the calendar promoted by Caesar and the month of August is named after him.
The Julio-Claudians continued to rule Rome after Augustus' death in 14 AD and remained in power until the death of Nero in 68 AD. Tiberius retired to Capri in 26 AD leaving control of the city of Rome in the hands of the praetorian prefect Sejanus until 31 AD. Caligula became emperor but was murdered four years after the death of Tiberius. Claudius conquered Lycia and Thrace and began the conquest of Britannia. He was poisoned by his wife Agrippina the Younger in 54 AD. Nero sent his general Suetonius Paulinus to invade modern-day Wales where he encountered stiff resistance.
A disastrous scenario emerged after the death of Alexander Severus: the Roman state was plagued by civil wars external invasions political chaos pandemics and economic depression. There were 26 emperors in a 49-year period a signal of political instability. Maximinus Thrax was the first ruler of that time governing for just three years. Others ruled just for a few months like Gordian I Gordian II Balbinus and Hostilian. The economy also suffered massive military expenditures from the Severi caused a devaluation of Roman coins.
In 284 AD Diocletian was hailed as Imperator by the eastern army. A new form of government was established called the Tetrarchy. The Empire was divided among four emperors two in the West and two in the East. The first tetrarchs were Diocletian in the East Maximian in the West and two junior emperors Galerius in the East and Flavius Constantius in the West. To adjust the economy Diocletian made several tax reforms. He adopted many behaviours of Eastern monarchs. Anyone in the presence of the emperor had now to prostrate himself a common act in the East but never practised in Rome before.
Constantine assumed the empire as a tetrarch in 306. In 313 he issued the Edict of Milan which granted liberty for Christians to profess their religion. Constantine was converted to Christianity enforcing the Christian faith. He began the Christianization of the Empire and of Europe. In 324 he defeated another tetrarch Licinius and controlled all the empire. To celebrate his victories and Christianity's relevance he rebuilt Byzantium and renamed it Nova Roma or New Rome. The city soon gained the informal name of Constantinople City of Constantine.
The roots of the legal principles and practices of the ancient Romans may be traced to the Law of the Twelve Tables promulgated in 449 BC and to the codification of law issued by order of Emperor Justinian I around 530 AD. Roman law as preserved in Justinian's codes continued into the Byzantine Roman Empire and formed the basis of similar codifications in continental Western Europe. The major divisions of the law of ancient Rome consisted of jus civile citizen law which applied to Roman citizens and jus gentium law of nations which applied to foreigners.
Initially Rome was ruled by kings who were elected from each of Rome's major tribes in turn. In military matters the king's authority imperium was likely absolute. He was also the head of the state religion. In addition to the authority of the King there were three administrative assemblies: the Senate which acted as an advisory body for the King; the Comitia Curiata which could endorse and ratify laws suggested by the King; and the Comitia Calata which was an assembly of the priestly college that could assemble the people to bear witness to certain acts.
In the Republic the Senate held actual auctoritas but no real legislative power. It was technically only an advisory council. However as the Senators were individually very influential it was difficult to accomplish anything against the collective will of the Senate. New senators were chosen from among the most accomplished patricians by censors who could also remove a senator from his office if he was found morally corrupt. Later under the reforms of the dictator Sulla quaestors were made automatic members of the Senate though most of his reforms did not survive.
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Common questions
When did archaeological evidence of settlement around Rome start to emerge?
Archaeological evidence of settlement around Rome starts to emerge in the middle of the 8th century BC. Large-scale organisation appears only then, with the first graves in the Esquiline Hill's necropolis.
Who founded the city of Rome according to Roman founding myth?
The Romans themselves had a founding myth attributing their city to Romulus and Remus. These sons were offspring of Mars and a princess of the mythical city of Alba Longa.
What date marks the traditional foundation of Rome by Marcus Terentius Varro?
The later Roman antiquarian Marcus Terentius Varro placed the city's foundation to 753 BC. The story dates at least to the 3rd century BC.
Which battle resulted in the Gauls defeating the Romans on the 16th of July 390 BC?
On the 16th of July 390 BC, a Gallic army under the leadership of tribal chieftain Brennus defeated the Romans at the Battle of the Allia. The Gauls looted and burned the city then laid siege to the Capitoline Hill for seven months.
When did the Second Punic War end with the defeat of Carthage?
Hannibal's invasion lasted over 16 years ravaging Italy but ultimately Carthage was defeated in the decisive Battle of Zama in October 202 BC.
Who established the Tetrarchy as a new form of government in 284 AD?
In 284 AD Diocletian was hailed as Imperator by the eastern army. A new form of government was established called the Tetrarchy.