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— CH. 1 · BRONZE AGE ORIGINS AND LUKKA IDENTITY —

Lycia

~5 min read · Ch. 1 of 6
6 sections

  • In the 13th century BC, Egyptian records described a people called the Lukka as raiders and rebels who fought against the Hittite Empire. These same records listed them among groups known to modern scholars as the Sea People. The Lukka lands were never a unified kingdom but instead had a decentralized political structure. Archaeological remains of the Lukka people are sparse compared to other ancient civilizations. Trevor Bryce notes that the toponyms Lukka and Lycia are believed to be cognate. Ilya Yakubovich suggests their names are linked to numerous Lukkan and Lycian settlements. The region was part of the Assuwa confederation before fighting for the Hittites in the Battle of Kadesh. This early history sets the stage for understanding how a fragmented group became a distinct cultural entity.

  • Harpagus arrived at the southern coast of Anatolia in 546 BC with an army tasked by Cyrus the Great to subdue the states of Asia Minor. In the Xanthos Valley, an army of Xanthian Greeks sallied out to meet them despite being vastly outnumbered. They collected all property, dependents, and slaves into a central building and burned them up before dying to a man fighting the Persians. Herodotus wrote that 80 Xanthian families were away at the time, perhaps with herd animals in alpine summer pastures. These survivors helped repopulate the place after the massacre. Charles Fellows initiated the Harpagid Theory by reading one line on the Xanthian Obelisk identifying a person as the son of Arppakhu. He conjectured that Harpagos had been made permanent satrap of Lycia for his services. Modern scholars now reject most of this theory because the Achaemenids utilized no permanent satrapies. The main evidence against it is the reconstruction of the name of the Xanthian Obelisk's deceased as Lycian Kheriga. Kheriga was a king reigning approximately 440, 410 BC over a century later than the conqueror of Lycia.

  • Strabo recorded that twenty-three cities came together for a general assembly and had a share in its votes. The largest cities like Xanthos, Patara, Myra, Pinara, Tlos, and Olympos each entitled three votes in the league. Medium-sized ones received two votes while the rest got only one. Polybius wrote that the Romans sent envoys to Rhodes saying the Lycians had not been handed over as a gift but to be treated like friends and allies. In 168 BC, during the Third Macedonian War, the Roman senate issued a decree freeing the Carians and the Lycians. This native government became an early federation with republican principles. James Madison later studied these structures when framing the United States Constitution. The league remained strong despite mountainous terrain, foreign invasions, and attempts by tyrants to take power. It functioned without freedom over matters of war and peace since those were under Roman control. However, they retained ancestral laws and customs throughout their existence under Roman suzerainty.

  • Complete assimilation to Greek occurred sometime in the 4th century after Lycia had come under the control of Alexander the Great. Inscriptions in Lycian diminished while those in Greek multiplied until nothing dated after 300 BC has yet been found. Julius Caesar signed a treaty with the Lycian League in 46 BC containing nine articles about friendship, alliance, and neutrality. Claudius annexed Lycia in 43 AD because he reduced the Lycians to servitude due to internal feuds. Cassius Dio wrote that Claudius incorporated them into the prefecture of Pamphylia. Suetonius stated that Claudius deprived the Lycians of independence because of deadly intestine feuds. An inscription from Perge dated late 46 or early 45 BC praised Claudius for restoring ancestral laws. Vespasian joined the Roman provinces of Lycia and Pamphylia into the province of Lycia et Pamphylia in 74 AD. The region lost its sovereignty when defeated by the Carians but maintained home rule as a protectorate until final annexation.

  • Four ridges extend from northeast to southwest forming the western extremity of the Taurus Mountains. Boncuk Dağlari peaks at about 1,200 meters extending from Altinyayla to Oren north of Fethiye. Akdağlari reaches Uyluktepe which stands at 2,369 meters above sea level. Tahtali Dağ rises to 2,368 meters and was dubbed Mount Olympus by the Greeks. Yanartaş sits on the slopes of Mount Olympus where methane gas escapes through rocks feeding eternal flames. The Xanthos Valley flows south transecting the several-mile-long beach at Patara. Ancient settlements often sit along coastal strips in protecting coves or on mountain slopes making them difficult to access. These locations served as defensive features allowing well-defended ports from which pirate fleets sallied forth during troubled times. Distinctive rock-cut tombs carved into cliff sides remain visible today across the Teke Peninsula. The British Museum holds one of the best collections of Lycian artifacts including the Nereid Monument reconstructed between 390 and 380 BC.

  • During the Byzantine period Lycia came under command of the Karabisianoi navy from mid-7th century until early 8th century. After disbandment between 719 and 727 they became the Theme of the Cibyrrhaeots. Lycia was assigned to Italy according to Treaty of Sèvres after World War I but returned to Turkey in 1923. A substantial Christian community of Greeks lived in Lycia until the 1920s when forced migration occurred following Greco-Turkish War. Abandoned Greek houses still stand in regions like Kayaköy serving as ghost towns reminding visitors of this exodus. Small populations of Turkish farmers moved into the region when Lycian Greeks migrated away. The area now serves as a key center for domestic and foreign tourism in modern Turkey. Kate Clow established Turkey's first waymarked long-distance footpath called the Lycian Way to support sustainable tourism in smaller mountain villages. Yeşilüzümlü village remains popular among tourists due to historic architecture and narrow cobblestone streets near Cadyanda ruins dating back to 3000 BCE.

Common questions

Who were the Lukka people in ancient Anatolia?

The Lukka were a decentralized group of raiders and rebels described in 13th century BC Egyptian records as part of the Sea People. They fought against the Hittite Empire and their lands never formed a unified kingdom.

What happened to the Xanthian Greeks during the Persian invasion of 546 BC?

An army of Xanthian Greeks burned all property and dependents before dying to a man fighting Harpagus forces. Herodotus recorded that 80 families survived by being away with herd animals in alpine summer pastures and later repopulated the area.

How did the Roman Senate treat the Lycians in 168 BC?

The Roman senate issued a decree freeing the Carians and the Lycians during the Third Macedonian War. This action established an early federation with republican principles that retained ancestral laws under Roman suzerainty.

When was Lycia annexed by Claudius and why?

Claudius annexed Lycia in 43 AD because he reduced the Lycians to servitude due to internal feuds. Cassius Dio wrote that Claudius incorporated them into the prefecture of Pamphylia while Suetonius stated he deprived them of independence for the same reason.

Where are the main mountain ridges located in ancient Lycia?

Four ridges extend from northeast to southwest forming the western extremity of the Taurus Mountains including Boncuk Dağlari and Akdağlari peaks. Tahtali Dağ rises to 2,368 meters and was dubbed Mount Olympus by the Greeks where Yanartaş sits on the slopes.

What happened to the Greek population in Lycia after World War I?

A substantial Christian community of Greeks lived in Lycia until forced migration occurred following the Greco-Turkish War in the 1920s. Abandoned Greek houses still stand in regions like Kayaköy serving as ghost towns reminding visitors of this exodus.

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All sources

67 references cited across the entry

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