Second Triumvirate
On the 27th of November 43 BC, a law known as the lex Titia transformed three men into rulers with absolute authority. Mark Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian received powers to make or repeal legislation without senate approval. They could issue judicial punishments without due process or right of appeal. The law allowed them to appoint all other magistrates in the Roman world. This legal framework exceeded the power held by ordinary consuls. Ancient records on the Capitoline Fasti listed the triumvirs above the consuls. Their term was set for five years initially before renewal in 37 BC. The trio divided the Roman world into three sets of provinces under their control.
The triumvirs issued a declaration stating that Julius Caesar's clementia had been a failure. Appended to this statement was a death list containing names of political enemies. Plutarch recorded figures ranging from 200 to 300 men proscribed across different accounts. Livy mentioned 130 senators while Florus gave 140 senators. Appian described 17 names added first followed by two rounds adding 130 and 150 others. Cicero appeared on the death lists along with his brother Quintus and nephew. Persons on these lists faced property confiscation sold to raise funds for the state. Freelance assassins received cash rewards for aiding in the killings. Some victims escaped to Macedonia or Sicily while others pleaded successfully for clemency. The triumvirs seized eighteen rich Italian towns and redistributed them to their soldiers.
Forty legions moved against Brutus and Cassius in the eastern provinces during 42 BC. Lepidus remained in Italy supervised by pro-Antony governors while Antony and Octavian crossed the Adriatic. Naval forces of the liberatores interdicted the triumvir's transports early in the year. Brutus and Cassius reached Philippi in early September forcing the advance forces to retreat. Antony constructed earthworks on Cassius' flank to force battle despite weak supply situations. Cassius died by suicide believing the battle was lost after his camp fell to Antony. Three weeks later on the 23rd of October 42 BC, Brutus offered battle again fearing desertions. The combined forces of Antony and Octavian defeated Brutus' army completely. Antony was largely the victor while Octavian spent most of the first battle hiding in a marsh. Brutus died by suicide following this second defeat at Philippi.
Antony's brother Lucius Antonius served as consul for 41 BC alongside wife Fulvia fanning unrest throughout Italy. They spread propaganda indicting Octavian's regime with stomping on citizen rights. Lucius occupied Rome with an army in summer 41 BC but was beaten back and besieged in Perusia. Octavian captured the town and massacred its councillors before burning it to the ground. Relations between Antony and Octavian deteriorated further when Sextus Pompey raided Italian coasts. Antony sailed to Brundisium where Octavian's garrison refused admission leading to siege conditions. Negotiations completed in September 40 BC through intermediaries Gaius Maecenas and Gaius Asinius Pollio. The treaty sealed peace with another marriage: Antony wed Octavian's sister Octavia. Public opinion soured when higher taxes were announced amid grain ship disruptions from Sextus' fleet. Lepidus later attempted to suborn Octavian's troops after accepting surrender of Sextus' legions. Octavian secured loyalty of soldiers defeating Lepidus who was stripped of membership in the triumvirate.
Mark Antony moved down the Mediterranean coast confirming rulers in Palestine despite previous support for enemies. He called Cleopatra to attend him in Cilicia entering into an affair that proved useful to her throne security. Antony helped secure her position against Ptolemaic claimants while leaving her in spring 40 BC for Parthian campaign preparations. Parthian forces invaded Asia Minor under Pacorus and Quintus Labienus in early spring 40 BC largely unchallenged. Antony struck north towards Armenia joining detachments from allied kings before driving south into Persia. Sixteen legions arrived at Phraata but slow-moving siege engines had been intercepted and destroyed. Artavasdes abandoned Antony forcing difficult retreat over 27 days losing around a third of entire army. Antony fathered son with Cleopatra publicly acknowledging paternity of twins born in 40 BC strengthening positions in Egypt. Cleopatra received Crete and Cyrene amid general reorganization of eastern provinces.
Antony captured Armenian king Artavasdes in 34 BC parading him in Dionysiac procession in Alexandria. Octavian's propaganda seized on this as sacrilege linking Antony with oriental immorality under Cleopatra influence. The "donations of Alexandria" ceremony crowned children with Cleopatra as oriental monarchs going down poorly in Rome. Antony divorced Octavia choosing to stay with Egyptian mistress alienating Italian public opinion. Lucius Munatius Plancus fled Antony's camp recommending opening Antony's will legally sealed with Vestal Virgins. Octavian allegedly found plans for burial in Alexandria recognizing Caesarion as Caesar's son giving Roman lands to children. Octavian organized civil oath to personal leadership declaring war on Cleopatra stripping Antony of legal position. Agrippa launched surprise attacks on western Greek harbors cutting off Antony's supplies before sea battle on the 2nd of September 31 BC at Actium. Most fleet did not follow when Antony and Cleopatra fled through gap in line returning to port after battle. Octavian took Alexandria on the 1st of August 30 BC killing Caesarion and Antyllus while capturing Cleopatra's children.
Tacitus dated end of republic to triumviral victory at Philippi leaving it defenseless and disarmed. Erich Gruen attributed collapse to long brutal conflicts fought by and between the triumvirs making recovery impossible. Mass violence of rule seen contemporaneously as illegitimate prompting attempts to preserve republican appearance. Traditional magistrates still conducted public business though consuls exercised independent political authority. Lucius Munatius Plancus passed legislation striking victims from proscription lists showing institutional machinery continued operation. The triumvirate made repeated promises to give powers back to senate though never kept. Political chaos proved ladder for provincials veterans and former slaves during unstable period. Horace wrote Epodes and Satires Virgil produced Eclogues and Georgics reflecting fears of rural Italy. Cicero's plight became recurrent topic in ancient schools of oratory discussing proscriptions extensively.
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Common questions
When did the Second Triumvirate begin and what law established it?
The Second Triumvirate began on the 27th of November 43 BC when the lex Titia transformed Mark Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian into rulers with absolute authority. This law allowed them to make or repeal legislation without senate approval and issue judicial punishments without due process.
How many senators were proscribed during the Second Triumvirate according to ancient sources?
Ancient records provide varying figures for the number of proscribed senators including Livy who mentioned 130 senators and Florus who gave 140 senators. Appian described a list starting with 17 names followed by two rounds adding 130 and 150 others while Plutarch recorded figures ranging from 200 to 300 men.
What happened at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC involving Brutus and Cassius?
Brutus and Cassius reached Philippi in early September 42 BC where Antony constructed earthworks on Cassius' flank to force battle despite weak supply situations. Cassius died by suicide after his camp fell to Antony and three weeks later on the 23rd of October 42 BC Brutus offered battle again before dying by suicide following defeat.
Why did relations between Antony and Octavian deteriorate after 40 BC?
Relations deteriorated when Sextus Pompey raided Italian coasts and Antony sailed to Brundisium where Octavian's garrison refused admission leading to siege conditions. The situation worsened further when Antony divorced Octavia choosing to stay with Cleopatra which alienated Italian public opinion.
When did the Second Triumvirate end and what event marked its conclusion?
The Second Triumvirate ended with the victory at Philippi according to Tacitus though the final collapse occurred after the sea battle on the 2nd of September 31 BC at Actium. Octavian took Alexandria on the 1st of August 30 BC killing Caesarion and Antyllus while capturing Cleopatra's children to conclude the conflict.
All sources
18 references cited across the entry
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- 2encyclopediaTriumvirate, FirstAmy Russell — Wiley — 2015-06-30
- 3harvnbRawson (1992) p. 474Rawson — 1992
- 4journalThe lex Pedia of 43 BCE and its aftermathKathryn Welch — 2014
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- 7harvnbApp. ''BCiv.'' p. 4.5.7App. ''BCiv.''
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