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— CH. 1 · ORIGINS AND ESCALATION —

Third Punic War

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  • In 149 BC, a Carthaginian army under Hasdrubal marched against King Masinissa of Numidia. This action violated the peace treaty signed in 201 BC that forbade Carthage from waging war without Rome's permission. The campaign ended in disaster at the Battle of Oroscopa where the Carthaginian forces surrendered. Anti-Carthaginian factions within the Roman Senate used this illicit military action as a pretext to prepare a punitive expedition. Cato, a senior senator known for ending his speeches with the phrase "Carthage must be destroyed," had long advocated for further military action against the city-state. In contrast, Scipio Nasica argued that fear of a strong enemy like Carthage kept the common people in check and avoided social division. Despite Carthage paying off its indemnity in 151 BC and prospering economically, Rome declared war after the large North African port city of Utica went over to them. The Senate and People's Assembly of Rome then demanded that Carthage hand over all weaponry.

  • Scipio Aemilianus built an immense mole to cut off access to the harbour via blockade runners. The Carthaginians responded by cutting a new channel from their harbour to the sea. They had built a new fleet and once the channel was complete, they sailed out taking the Romans by surprise. In the ensuing Battle of the Port of Carthage many ships were trapped against the city's sea wall and sunk or captured. The Romans now attempted to advance against the Carthaginian defences in the harbour area eventually gaining control of the quay. Over several months they constructed a brick structure as high as the city wall which enabled up to 4,000 Romans to fire onto the Carthaginian ramparts from short range. This feature allowed Roman forces to dominate the city walls directly. Once this construction was complete Scipio detached a large force and led it against the Carthaginian field army at Nepheris. The town of Nepheris surrendered after three weeks and most fortified positions still holding out in Carthage's hinterland opened their gates.

  • Aged 36 or 37 Scipio intended to stand for the consulship but was too young since the minimum age was 41. There was considerable political manoeuvring behind the scenes involving his partisans who played on his successes over the previous two years. Public demand to appoint him as consul was so strong that the Senate put aside the age requirements for all posts for the year. He was elected consul and appointed to sole command in Africa where usually theatres were allocated by lot. He was granted the unusual entitlement to enroll volunteers and conscript enough men to make up numbers. Scipio moved the Romans' main camp back to near Carthage closely observed by a Carthaginian detachment of 8,000. He made a speech demanding tighter discipline and dismissed soldiers he considered ill-disciplined or poorly motivated. His performance during earlier campaigns had been prominent in reports sent to Rome by a committee from the Senate evaluating progress.

  • In the spring of 146 BC Scipio launched a full-scale assault from the harbour area which successfully breached the walls. Over six days the Romans systematically worked their way through the residential part of the city killing everyone they encountered. They set buildings behind them on fire while advancing deeper into the urban landscape. On the last day Scipio agreed to accept prisoners except for 900 Roman deserters in Carthaginian service. These 900 fought on from the Temple of Eshmoun and burnt it down around themselves when hope was gone. Hasdrubal surrendered to Scipio on the promise of his life and freedom but his wife walked into the temple with her children to burn to death. 50,000 Carthaginian prisoners were sold into slavery after the fighting ceased. The notion that Roman forces then sowed the city with salt is likely a 19th-century invention.

  • The main source for most aspects of the Punic Wars is the historian Polybius who accompanied Scipio Aemilianus in North Africa during the Third Punic War. His works include a now-lost manual on military tactics but he is best known for The Histories written sometime after 146 BC. This causes the normally reliable Polybius to recount Scipio's actions in a favourable light. Significant portions of The Histories account of the Third Punic War have been lost. The account of Livy relies heavily on Polybius yet all that survives of his account after 167 BC is a list of contents. Modern historians also use the account of Appian which is thought to be largely based on Polybius's work. Bernard Mineo states it is the only complete and continuous account of this war though several problems have been identified. These issues mean that of the three Punic Wars the third is the one about which the least is reliably known.

  • Rome was determined that the city of Carthage remain in ruins so the Senate despatched a ten-man commission to carry out further demolitions. A curse was placed on anyone who might attempt to resettle the site in the future. The former site of the city was confiscated as public land while the formerly Carthaginian territories were annexed by Rome. They reconstituted these areas to become the Roman province of Africa with Utica as its capital. Surviving cities were permitted to retain at least elements of their traditional system of government and culture. Punic language continued to be spoken in north Africa until the 7th century AD. In 123 BC a reformist faction led by Gaius Gracchus passed a controversial law ordering the establishment of a new settlement called Junonia but political machinations caused the plan to be scrapped. Julius Caesar planned to rebuild Carthage as a Roman city in 111 BC but little work was done before Augustus revived the concept in 29 BC.

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Common questions

What caused the Third Punic War to begin in 149 BC?

The Third Punic War began when a Carthaginian army under Hasdrubal marched against King Masinissa of Numidia, violating the peace treaty signed in 201 BC. This illicit military action provided Anti-Carthaginian factions within the Roman Senate with a pretext to prepare a punitive expedition.

How did Scipio Aemilianus gain command during the Third Punic War?

Scipio Aemilianus gained sole command because public demand was so strong that the Senate put aside age requirements for all posts for the year. He was elected consul despite being aged 36 or 37 since the minimum age was 41 and granted unusual entitlements to enroll volunteers and conscript men.

When did the Romans breach the walls of Carthage during the Third Punic War?

Roman forces breached the walls of Carthage in the spring of 146 BC after launching a full-scale assault from the harbour area. Over six days they systematically worked through the residential part of the city killing everyone they encountered before setting buildings on fire.

Who wrote the main historical accounts of the Third Punic War?

The historian Polybius accompanied Scipio Aemilianus in North Africa during the Third Punic War and is the main source for most aspects of the conflict. His work The Histories was written sometime after 146 BC, though significant portions have been lost and modern historians also use the account of Appian.

What happened to the city of Carthage after the Third Punic War ended?

Rome determined that the city of Carthage remain in ruins so the Senate despatched a ten-man commission to carry out further demolitions. A curse was placed on anyone who might attempt to resettle the site in the future while the former territory became the Roman province of Africa with Utica as its capital.

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All sources

34 references cited across the entry

  1. 1bookScipio AemilianusA. E. Astin — Clarendon Press — 1967
  2. 2bookCambridge Ancient History: Rome and the Mediterranean to 133 B.C., Volume 8, 2nd EditionA. E. Astin — Cambridge University Press — 2006
  3. 3bookThe Punic Wars: Rome, Carthage and the Struggle for the MediterraneanNigel Bagnall — Pimlico — 1999
  4. 4bookSPQR: A History of Ancient RomeMary Beard — Profile Books — 2016
  5. 5bookA Companion to the Punic WarsYann Le Bohec — John Wiley — 2015
  6. 6bookA Companion to the Punic WarsCraige B. Champion — John Wiley — 2015
  7. 7webRome and Carthage Sign Peace Treaty Ending Punic Wars After 2,131 YearsHabib Fakhri — Associated Press — 1985
  8. 8bookA Companion to the Punic WarsM’hamed-Hassine Fantar — John Wiley — 2015
  9. 9bookThe Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars 265–146 BCAdrian Goldsworthy — Phoenix — 2006
  10. 10bookCambridge Ancient History: Rome and the Mediterranean to 133 B.C., Volume 8, 2nd EditionW. V. Harris — Cambridge University Press — 2006
  11. 11bookRubicon: The Triumph and Tragedy of the Roman RepublicTom Holland — Abacus — 2004
  12. 12bookHannibal's Dynasty: Power and Politics in the Western Mediterranean, 247–183 BCDexter Hoyos — Routledge — 2005
  13. 13bookA Companion to the Punic WarsDexter Hoyos — John Wiley — 2015
  14. 14bookCarthaginian Gold and Electrum CoinsG. K. Jenkins et al. — Royal Numismatic Society — 1963
  15. 15bookHistorie de l'Afrique du NordEdmond Jules René Jouhaud — Éditions des Deux Cogs dÓr — 1968
  16. 16bookA Companion to the Punic WarsClaudia Kunze — John Wiley — 2015
  17. 17bookThe First Punic War: A Military HistoryJohn Lazenby — Stanford University Press — 1996
  18. 18bookHannibal's War: A Military History of the Second Punic WarJohn Lazenby — Aris & Phillips — 1998
  19. 19bookCarthage Must be DestroyedRichard Miles — Penguin — 2011
  20. 20bookA Companion to the Punic WarsBernard Mineo — John Wiley — 2015
  21. 21bookA History of the Later Roman EmpireStephen Mitchell — Blackwell — 2007
  22. 22bookWorlds Together Worlds ApartElizabeth Pollard — W.W. Norton — 2015
  23. 23bookEthics and Rhetoric: Classical Essays for Donald Russell on his Seventy Fifth BirthdayNicholas Purcell — Clarendon — 1995
  24. 24bookA Companion to the Punic WarsJohn Richardson — John Wiley — 2015
  25. 25journalTo Be Taken with a Pinch of Salt: The Destruction of CarthageRonald Ridley — 1986
  26. 26encyclopediaCarthageD. Appleton — 1858–1863
  27. 27journalCarthageHoward Scullard — 1955
  28. 28bookA History of the Roman World, 753 to 146 BCHoward H. Scullard — Routledge — 2002
  29. 29journalPolybius: A SketchRowland Shutt — 1938
  30. 30bookThe World of Rome: An Introduction to Roman CultureKeith C. Sidwell et al. — Cambridge University Press — 1998
  31. 31webArchaeological Site of CarthageUNESCO — 2020
  32. 32journalCarthago delenda est: Aitia and ProphasisUrsula Vogel-Weidemann — 1989
  33. 33bookA Historical Commentary on PolybiusF.W. Walbank — Clarendon — 1979
  34. 34bookPolybiusF.W. Walbank — University of California Press — 1990