Battle of the Allia

• 1. The Senones Arrive

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  In the year 390 BC, a Gallic tribe known as the Senones moved into northern Italy. Their leader was Brennus, a chieftain who had already led his people across the Alps. They settled near what is now Rimini on the Adriatic Coast. The story of their invasion began in the Etruscan town of Clusium. An influential young man named Aruns asked them to intervene in a local dispute. He wanted revenge against Lucumo because Lucumo's son had seduced Aruns' wife. When the Senones appeared at Clusium, the locals felt threatened and asked Rome for help.

  Rome sent three ambassadors from the powerful Fabia family. These were the sons of Marcus Fabius Ambustus. They told the Gauls not to attack Clusium or else Rome would fight. The Roman envoys then tried to negotiate peace. The Senones agreed to peace if the Clusians gave them land. A quarrel broke out during these talks. One of the Roman ambassadors killed a Senone chieftain. This act violated the ancient rule that ambassadors must remain neutral. The brothers took sides in the conflict and one of them killed another Senone leader. The Gauls withdrew to discuss their next move.

• 2. The Battle Of Allia

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  The battle took place at the confluence of the Tiber River and the Allia brook. It was located 11 Roman miles north of Rome. Ancient sources give conflicting numbers for the forces involved. Livy wrote that no special measures were taken in Rome before the army marched out. The levy was no larger than usual for ordinary campaigns. The Gauls moved so quickly that Rome was thunderstruck by their speed. The Romans struggled to get any further than the eleventh milestone on the road.

  At the eastern juncture of the rivers, the two armies met. The Romans presumably were outnumbered. They did not set up camp or build a defensive rampart. They failed to divine the gods as they were supposed to do. They extended their wings to avoid being outflanked but this made their line too thin. The center could hardly be kept together. Brennus suspected the reserves on the hill were a ruse. He attacked the hill instead of the plain. The Romans panicked when the attack began. The left wing threw down their arms and fled toward the river bank. Those who could not swim drowned under the weight of their armor. Most survivors reached Veii, an Etruscan city near the other bank.

• 3. The Sack Of Rome

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  The Senones entered Rome after sunset on the day following the battle. They found the city gates open and the walls unmanned. This surprised them greatly. They decided to avoid fighting at night in an unknown town. Instead they encamped between Rome and the River Anio. The inhabitants of Rome were in panic. They sent men of military age and able-bodied senators to the Capitoline Hill with weapons and provisions. The Flamen of Quirinus and the Vestal Virgins took sacred objects away from the city. They buried some items under the chapel next to the Flamen's house.

  Lucius Albinus saw the priests walking and gave them a lift to Caere. He ordered his wife and children off his wagon so they could use it for the sacred vessels. Those who had been officers of state met their fate wearing ceremonial dresses. They sat on ivory chairs in front of their houses. The next day the Senones passed through the Colline Gate into the Roman Forum. They left a small body to guard against attacks from the Capitoline. Fires did not spread as widely as expected on the first day. Livy speculated that the Gauls wanted only to intimidate the defenders.

• 4. Conflicting Ancient Narratives

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  Livy, Diodorus Siculus, Plutarch, and Polybius all wrote about these events centuries after they happened. Their accounts contain major discrepancies regarding dates and specific details. Livy places the battle in 390 BC based on Varronian chronology. Plutarch noted the moon was near full just after the summer solstice. This suggests a date shortly after 393 BC. Polybius used a Greek dating system to derive 387 BC as the most probable year. Tacitus listed the date as the 18th of July.

  Diodorus Siculus provides much less detail than Livy. He claims the Senones spent the first day cutting off heads of the dead. He says they encamped by the city for two days before breaking down the gates. Plutarch paints a picture of greater destruction and killings. He states the siege lasted seven months from the Ides of July to the Ides of February. Some modern historians see Camillus's rescue story as an addition since he is missing from Diodorus and Polybius. Strabo wrote that Caere recovered Rome's ransomed gold which runs counter to Roman tradition.

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• 5. Archaeological Evidence And Dating

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  Scholar Piero Treves notes the absence of any archaeological evidence for a destruction level at this date. He suggests the sack of Rome was superficial only. Signs of burning thought to be dated to this event have been redated to the rebellion that brought down the monarchy over a century earlier. Cornell finds it unconvincing that the Senones were migrating people searching for land. There is no mention in accounts of wives and children who would be present if they were a migrating group.

  Cornell thinks the Senones were mercenaries hired by political factions. A few months after the sack Dionysius I of Syracuse hired Gallic mercenaries for war in southern Italy. This fits with the hypothesis that they were on their way south. The story of their defeat on the return journey supports this view. Modern estimates suggest both sides had around 5,000 men rather than the tens of thousands recorded by ancient sources. Jeremy Armstrong argues this number is realistic for a Gallic mercenary band and the small size of Rome during this period.

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• 6. Roman Recovery And Rebuilding

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  A few years after the sack Rome began building new city walls using ashlar masonry from Veii. The wall stretched 11 kilometers long. It replaced the original Cappellaccio tuff which was friable stone of poor quality. The new yellow tuff named Grotta Oscura came from a quarry in Veii territory. This rock was harder but much better quality. The acquisition of Veii provided Rome with superior materials for construction.

  Rome resumed its expansionism of the late fifth and early fourth centuries. Cornell notes that recovery was aided by granting citizenship to Veii's inhabitants without voting rights. They also strengthened alliances with Caere. Despite initial setbacks attacks continued. In 350 and 349 BC unspecified Gauls attacked Latium. Marcus Valerius Corvus fought a duel with a Gallic champion on one occasion. Polybius said Rome made peace with the Gauls who did not return for thirty years.

• 7. Cultural Legacy And Fear

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  The Gallic sack led to a long-lasting fear of the Gauls in Rome. Popular anxiety persisted even after victories like the Battle of Sentinum in 295 BC. In 228, 216, and 114 BC fears of Gallic attacks led Romans to perform human sacrifices. They buried alive pairs of Gauls and Greeks despite this not being Roman custom. Presumably these acts were done to avert danger of another disaster.

  Plutarch mentions an inaccurate story by Heracleides Ponticus about the capture. Aristotle wrote that the savior of the city was a certain Lucius rather than Camillus. This could refer to Lucius Albinus who gave priestesses a lift to Caere. The role of Caere remains unclear in the saga. It may have played a more important part than Roman tradition suggests. The psychological impact of the event shaped religious rituals and political decisions for centuries following the invasion.