Maximian

• 1. A Shopkeeper's Son

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  Maximian was born around the year 250 near Sirmium in the province of Pannonia. His family owned a shop, and he grew up along the war-torn Danube frontier. Ancient sources describe his upbringing as harsh and call him a man of Pannonian virtues. He joined the Roman army and served under emperors Aurelian and Probus. Maximian fought alongside Diocletian during campaigns in Mesopotamia in 283. He attended Diocletian's election as emperor on the 20th of November 284 at Nicomedia. The historian Stephen Williams suggests that their roles were pre-agreed long before this moment. Yet no direct evidence proves they supported each other against Carinus. Maximian possessed great energy and an aggressive character. He preferred action over thought and remained uneducated. Aurelius Victor described him as trustworthy in friendship but somewhat boorish. His ambitions were purely military while politics belonged to Diocletian.

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• 2. The Dual Empire

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  Diocletian needed a lieutenant to manage heavy workloads across provinces from Gaul to Syria. At Mediolanum probably in July 285, he appointed Maximian as Caesar. Some scholars argue the date might be the 13th of December 285 instead. Diocletian had no sons so he sought a co-ruler from outside his family. He trusted Maximian enough to invest him with imperial powers despite physical distance. On the 1st of April 286, Maximian took the title of Augustus. This gave him the same status as the rebel Carausius. Imperial propaganda proclaimed them brothers equal in authority and prestige. Around 287, their relationship was redefined in religious terms. Diocletian assumed the title Iovius while Maximian became Herculius. These titles symbolized planning versus heroic task completion. They were not gods themselves but instruments imposing divine will on earth. The system worked well because single rule proved dangerous for previous emperors like Aurelian. Legal rulings and celebrations occurred under both names simultaneously.

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• 3. Frontier Wars

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  Maximian traveled to Gaul to engage rebels known as Bagaudae late in mid-285. Details of this campaign are sparse since historical sources dwell only on victories. A panegyric records that rebels were defeated with harshness and leniency combined. By year's end the revolt significantly abated before forces moved to the Rhine frontier. Two barbarian armies entered Gaul in late 285 including Burgundians and Alamanni. One army died of disease and hunger while Maximian intercepted another group. He established a headquarters either at Mainz or Trier for future campaigns. Maximian targeted Burgundian and Alemanni tribes using scorched earth tactics first. He laid waste to their land reducing numbers through famine and disease. After defeating these groups he cornered Heruli and Chaibones in a single battle. Roman forces pursued fleeing tribal armies and routed them completely. Maximian launched a great invasion across the Rhine bringing destruction to enemy homelands. By end of 287 Rhenish lands stood free of Germanic tribesmen. An invasion deep into Agri Decumates followed where both emperors burned crops together. Towns along the river rebuilt themselves after war ended.

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• 4. The Channel Crisis

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  Maximian appointed Mausaeus Carausius to command the Channel and clear it of raiders. Carausius fared well capturing pirate ships in great numbers by end of 285. The emperor soon heard that Carausius kept plunder for himself instead of returning it. Maximian ordered arrest and execution prompting Carausius to flee to Britain. At least two British legions defected including II Augusta and XX Valeria Victrix. Carausius declared himself Augustus creating an independent state called Imperium Britanniarum. His coinage featured markedly higher purity earning support from merchants. Maximian had no fleet since he gave it away and was busy quelling other threats. He could do little about the revolt while Carausius strengthened his position. A naval expedition planned for 289 failed when storms destroyed the invasion fleet. Constantius later campaigned against Carausius' successor Allectus while Maximian held the Rhine frontier. The rebel leader was ousted in 296 restoring British control under Roman authority.

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• 5. African Pacification

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  With Constantius victorious, Maximian focused on conflict in Mauretania northwest Africa. Nomadic Berber tribes harassed settlements with increasingly severe consequences during third century. In 296 Maximian raised an army from Praetorian cohorts and Danubian legionaries. He advanced through Spain crossing Strait of Gibraltar into Mauretania Tingitana. By March 297 a bloody offensive began against the Berbers. The campaign lasted lengthy as Maximian spent winter resting in Carthage before returning to field. He ventured deep into Berber territory despite unfavorable terrain and guerrilla warfare skills. Maximian devastated previously secure land killing as many as possible driving remainder back into Sahara. Campaign concluded by early 298 when triumphal entry occurred into Carthage on the 10th of March. Inscriptions recorded people's gratitude hailing him restorer of eternal light. He returned to Italy in early 299 celebrating another triumph in Rome.

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• 6. Retirement And Return

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  Diocletian celebrated his vicennalia anniversary in Rome in 303 exacting promise from Maximian to retire together. On the 1st of May 305 both emperors retired simultaneously in separate ceremonies at Milan and Nicomedia. Succession did not go entirely to Maximian's liking since Galerius appointed Severus and Maximinus as Caesars. This excluded Constantine and Maxentius from new positions. Within two years Maximian supported his son's rebellion against new regime. After death of Constantius on the 25th of July 306, Constantine assumed title Augustus displeasing Galerius. Maxentius persuaded imperial guardsmen to declare him Augustus on the 28th of October 306. He sent robes to Maximian saluting him Augustus second time offering theoretical equal rule. In late 307 a deal struck where Constantine married Fausta and was elevated Augustan rank. Maximian returned to Rome winter 307-8 but fell out with son challenging right to rule before assembly. He ripped imperial toga from Maxentius shoulders expecting soldiers recognition. They sided with Maxentius forcing Maximian to leave Italy in disgrace.

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• 7. Final Rebellion And Death

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  In 310 Maximian rebelled against Constantine while emperor campaigned against Franks. Sent south to Arles with part army to defend against attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. There he announced Constantine dead taking up imperial purple despite offering bribes. Most army remained loyal compelling Maximian to flee city quickly. Constantine abandoned campaign moving quickly to southern Gaul confronting fleeing Maximian at Massilia. Town better able withstand long siege but made little difference as citizens opened rear gates. Maximian captured reproved for crimes stripped of title third and last time. Constantine granted some clemency strongly encouraging suicide instead. In July 310 Maximian hanged himself following orders. Despite earlier rupture after suicide Maxentius presented himself devoted son minting coins bearing father's deified image. Constantine initially called suicide unfortunate family tragedy spreading another version later claiming plot to murder him. Fausta learned plot warning Constantine who put eunuch bed instead. Maximian apprehended killing eunuch offered suicide accepting it willingly.

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• 8. Memory Restored

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  Constantine defeated Maxentius Battle Milvian Bridge the 28th of October 312 ending his life bringing Italy under rule. Eutropia swore oath Maxentius not Maximian's son allowing memory rehabilitation. His apotheosis declared null void re-consecrated god probably year 317. He began appearing coinage divus divine by 318 together with deified Constantius Claudius Gothicus. Three hailed best emperors forebears through daughters Fausta Theodora every reigning emperor from 337 to 363 descended from line. Before defeat Maxentius' image purged all public places during war. After victory image rehabilitated restored honor lost years before. Damnatio memoriae destroyed inscriptions eliminating any public work bearing his image once more. Final restoration completed cycle of destruction and rebirth for Roman emperor.