Medievalism
In the 1330s, Petrarch declared that European culture had stagnated and drifted into what he called the "Dark Ages". He argued this decline began with the fall of Rome in the fifth century due to lost classical Latin texts and corrupted language. Renaissance scholars believed they lived in a new age breaking free from this described decline. Historians Leonardo Bruni and Flavio Biondo developed a three-tier outline of history composed of Ancient, Medieval, and Modern periods. The Latin term media tempestas first appeared in 1469 while medium aevum was recorded in 1604. The word medieval itself did not appear until the nineteenth century as an Anglicized form of medium aevum.
During the Reformations of the 16th and 17th centuries, Protestants followed critical views expressed by Renaissance Humanists for additional reasons. They saw classical antiquity as a golden time because it represented early Christianity beginnings alongside Latin literature. The intervening thousand-year Middle Age became a period of darkness marked by corruption within the Church. Popes ruled as kings while pagan superstitions involving saints' relics persisted among celibate priesthoods. Institutionalized moral hypocrisy characterized these centuries according to Protestant historians who dated modern era beginnings from the Reformation rather than the Renaissance.
In the Age of Enlightenment during the 17th and 18th centuries, people viewed the Middle Ages as an "Age of Faith" when religion reigned supreme. This made the period seem contrary to reason and opposed to the spirit of the Enlightenment. Critics called these times barbaric and priest-ridden while referring to them as "the uncouth centuries" or "centuries of ignorance". Voltaire attacked religiously dominated Middle Ages as periods of social stagnation and decline. He condemned Feudalism, Scholasticism, The Crusades, The Inquisition and the Catholic Church in general through his writings.
The Gothic Revival was an architectural movement which began in the 1740s in England. Its popularity grew rapidly in the early nineteenth century when increasingly serious admirers sought to revive medieval forms against classical styles prevalent at that time. In England, the epicentre of this revival, it intertwined with deeply philosophical movements associated with a re-awakening of High Church self-belief. Augustus Welby Pugin produced important Gothic buildings such as Cathedrals at Birmingham and Southwark plus the British Houses of Parliament in the 1840s.
Large numbers of existing English churches had features like crosses, screens and stained glass restored or added after removal during the Reformation. Most new Anglican and Catholic churches were built in the Gothic style throughout Britain. Viollet-le-Duc led the movement in France by restoring entire walled cities including Carcassonne alongside Notre Dame and Sainte Chapelle in Paris. Ralph Adams Cram became a leading force in American Gothic architecture with projects ranging from Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York to Collegiate Gothic buildings at Princeton Graduate College.
Wooden Carpenter Gothic churches and houses appeared in large numbers across North America during this period. The Gothic Revival created dark romanticism through literature dealing with supernatural elements against medieval backdrops. Horace Walpole wrote The Castle of Otranto in 1764 which helped found the modern horror genre alongside Mary Shelley's Frankenstein published in 1818. John Polidori contributed The Vampyre in 1819 while Edgar Allan Poe wrote "The Fall of the House of Usher" in 1839 and "The Pit and the Pendulum" in 1842.
Romanticism originated in the second half of the eighteenth century in Western Europe gaining strength during and after Industrial and French Revolutions. It served as revolt against political norms of Age of Enlightenment which rationalized nature. Romanticism reached beyond rational and Classicist models to elevate medievalism and elements perceived authentically medieval. This movement attempted escape from population growth, urban sprawl and industrialism by embracing exotic unfamiliar distant themes.
The name Romanticism itself derived from medieval genre chivalric romance contributing disproportionate influence on Middle Ages image compared to actual showing among medieval literature. William Blake illustrated Dante's Inferno Canto V Hell scenes while James Macpherson published Ossian cycle in 1762 inspiring Goethe's Götz von Berlichingen and young Walter Scott. Walter Scott's Waverley Novels including Ivanhoe published in 1819 helped popularize views of medieval era across Europe.
Medieval national epics translated into modern vernacular languages included Nibelungenlied appearing in Germany in 1782 alongside Lay of the Cid in Spain in 1799. Beowulf translation emerged in England in 1833 while Song of Roland appeared in France in 1837. These works were widely read and highly influential on subsequent literary artistic work throughout nineteenth-century Europe. Ludwig II of Bavaria built fairy-tale castle Neuschwanstein starting construction in 1868 decorated with scenes from Wagner operas representing major Romantic images of Middle Ages.
The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood group formed in 1848 founded by William Holman Hunt John Everett Millais Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Three founders soon joined William Michael Rossetti James Collinson Frederic George Stephens Thomas Woolner forming seven-member brotherhood. Group intention reform art rejecting mechanistic approach first adopted Mannerist artists succeeding Raphael Michelangelo believing Classical poses elegant compositions Raphael corrupting influence academic teaching art hence name Pre-Raphaelite.
They objected influence Sir Joshua Reynolds founder English Royal Academy Arts believing broad technique sloppy formulaic form academic Mannerism. In contrast wanted return abundant detail intense colours complex compositions Quattrocento Italian Flemish art. The Arts and Crafts movement aesthetic directly influenced Gothic Revival Pre-Raphaelites moving away aristocratic nationalist high Gothic influences emphasis idealized peasantry medieval community particularly fourteenth century often socialist political tendencies reaching height between about 1880 and 1910.
Movement inspired writings Carlyle Ruskin spearheaded work William Morris friend Pre-Raphaelites former apprentice Gothic-revival architect G.E. Street focusing fine arts textiles wood metal work interior design. Morris produced medieval ancient themed poetry beside socialist tracts medieval Utopia News From Nowhere published 1890. Morris formed Morris Marshall Faulkner Co. 1861 producing selling furnishings furniture often medieval themes emerging middle classes. First Arts and Crafts exhibition United States held Boston 1897 local societies spread country dedicated preserving perfecting disappearing craft beautifying house interiors.
Neo-medievalism neologism first popularized Italian medievalist Umberto Eco his 1973 essay Dreaming Middle Ages. Eco wrote thus we present witnessing Europe America period renewed interest Middle Ages curious oscillation fantastic neomedievalism responsible philological examination term clear definition since used describe intersection popular fantasy medieval history computer games MMORPGs films television neo-medieval music popular literature. Medievalism neomedievalism tend used interchangeably area study intersection contemporary representation past inspiration postmodern study medieval history trend modern international relations first discussed 1977 Hedley Bull argued society moving form neomedievalism individual notions rights growing sense world common good undermining national sovereignty.
Film significant creators images Middle Ages early twentieth century first medieval film earliest films ever made Jeanne d'Arc 1900 while first Robin Hood dates as early 1908. Influential European films nationalist agenda included German Nibelungenlied 1924 Eisenstein Alexander Nevsky 1938 Bergman Seventh Seal 1957 France many Joan Arc sequels Hollywood adopted medieval major genre issuing periodic remakes King Arthur William Wallace Robin Hood stories adapting screen historical romantic novels Ivanhoe 1952 MGM producing epics vein El Cid 1961.
Recent revivals genres include Robin Hood Prince Thieves 1991 Thirteenth Warrior 1999 Kingdom of Heaven 2005 Fantasy Literature folklore drew magic monsters elves dragons unicorns drawn medieval folklore romance earlier writers George MacDonald Princess Goblin 1872 William Morris Well World End 1896 Lord Dunsany King Elf Land Daughter 1924 set tales fantasy worlds clearly derived medieval sources filtered later views.
In second half twentieth century interest medieval increasingly expressed form re-enactment including combat reenactment re-creating historical conflict armour arms skill living history re-creates social cultural life past areas clothing food crafts movement led creation medieval markets Renaissance fairs late 1980s particularly Germany United States America. Leslie Workman Kathleen Verduin David Metzger noted introduction Studies Medievalism IX Medievalism Academy Vol I 1997 sense medievalism perceived some medievalists poor somewhat whimsical relation presumably serious medieval studies Cambridge Companion Medievalism 2016 editor Louise D'Arcens noted earliest medievalism scholarship Victorian specialists including Alice Chandler monograph Dream Order Medieval Ideal Nineteenth Century England Florence Boos edited volume History Community Essays Victorian Medievalism.
D'Arcens proposed 1970s saw discipline medievalism become academic area research own right International Society Study Medievalism formalized 1979 publication Studies Medievalism journal organized Leslie Workman. By 2016 medievalism taught subject hundreds university courses world at least two scholarly journals dedicated medievalism studies Studies Medievalism postmedieval Clare Monagle argued political medievalism caused medieval scholars repeatedly reconsider whether medievalism part study Middle Ages historical period. In 1977 International Relations scholar Hedley Bull coined term New Medievalism describe world result rising powers non-state actors society terrorist groups corporations supra-state organizations European Economic Community new technologies boundaries jurisdiction cross national borders shifts private wealth challenged exclusive authority state.
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Common questions
When did Petrarch declare that European culture had stagnated and drifted into the Dark Ages?
Petrarch declared that European culture had stagnated and drifted into what he called the Dark Ages in the 1330s. He argued this decline began with the fall of Rome in the fifth century due to lost classical Latin texts and corrupted language.
What year did the Latin term media tempestas first appear in historical records?
The Latin term media tempestas first appeared in 1469 while medium aevum was recorded in 1604. The word medieval itself did not appear until the nineteenth century as an Anglicized form of medium aevum.
Which architectural movement began in England during the 1740s to revive medieval forms against classical styles?
The Gothic Revival was an architectural movement which began in the 1740s in England. Its popularity grew rapidly in the early nineteenth century when increasingly serious admirers sought to revive medieval forms against classical styles prevalent at that time.
Who published the essay Dreaming Middle Ages that popularized the neologism Neo-medievalism in 1973?
Italian medievalist Umberto Eco popularized the neologism Neo-medievalism in his 1973 essay Dreaming Middle Ages. Eco wrote thus we present witnessing Europe America period renewed interest Middle Ages curious oscillation fantastic neomedievalism responsible philological examination term clear definition since used describe intersection popular fantasy medieval history computer games MMORPGs films television neo-medieval music popular literature.
When was the International Society Study Medievalism formalized and what journal did it publish?
The International Society Study Medievalism formalized in 1979 publication Studies Medievalism journal organized Leslie Workman. By 2016 medievalism taught subject hundreds university courses world at least two scholarly journals dedicated medievalism studies Studies Medievalism postmedieval Clare Monagle argued political medievalism caused medieval scholars repeatedly reconsider whether medievalism part study Middle Ages historical period.