Dark Ages (historiography)
In the 1330s, an Italian scholar named Petrarch looked back at centuries of history and saw only shadows. He wrote that amidst errors there shone forth men of genius, yet they were surrounded by darkness and dense gloom. This Tuscan thinker established a new way to view time itself. Before him, Christian writers used light versus darkness metaphors to describe good versus evil within religious contexts. Petrarch reversed this application entirely. He placed classical antiquity in the light because of its cultural achievements. He cast his own era into darkness for lacking such secular accomplishments.
By around 1343, Petrarch concluded his epic poem Africa with a prediction about the future. He stated that while he lived among varied and confusing storms, a better age would follow his death. He believed the sleep of forgetfulness would not last forever. When the darkness dispersed, descendants could return to former pure radiance. This vision created a two-period model of history: a classic period of Greeks and Romans followed by a time of darkness where he resided. Later historians like Leonardo Bruni and Flavio Biondo expanded this into three tiers, adding a modern age they claimed humanity had entered.
The phrase Dark Age itself derives from Latin origins much later. Caesar Baronius applied saeculum obscurum in 1602 to refer to a tumultuous period in the tenth and eleventh centuries. The concept eventually characterized the entire Middle Ages as intellectual darkness between Rome's fall and the Renaissance. It became especially popular during the eighteenth-century Age of Enlightenment. Others used the term to denote relative scarcity of written records regarding at least the early part of the Middle Ages.
During the Reformations of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Protestants generally held views similar to Renaissance humanists but added an anti-Catholic perspective. The Lutheran Magdeburg Centuries exemplified such thinking. They saw classical antiquity as golden because it witnessed Christianity's beginnings alongside Latin literature. Protestants promoted the idea that the Middle Age was dark due to corruption within the Catholic Church. Popes ruled as kings while priests lived licentiously. Institutionalized moral hypocrisy plagued religious institutions.
Cardinal Caesar Baronius responded with Annales Ecclesiastici to counter Protestant attacks. This work covered the first twelve centuries of Christianity up to 1198 and appeared in twelve volumes between 1588 and 1607. Volume X contained his coinage of the term dark age for the period ending Carolingian Empire collapse in 888. He chose this date somewhat arbitrarily due to annalistic approach though later historians amended it to 880 or 888. The first weeks of 888 witnessed final break-up of Carolingian Empire and death of deposed ruler Charles the Fat.
Baronius termed the age dark primarily because of paucity of written records. A comparison of Migne's Patrologia Latina shows sharp drop from thirty-four volumes in ninth century to just eight in tenth century. Eleventh century recovered slightly with thirteen volumes while twelfth surpassed ninth with forty volumes. Thirteenth century failed to match with twenty-six volumes. Two dark ages existed separated by brilliant but brief Carolingian Renaissance. In Western Europe, lack of writers defined these periods more than any other factor.
During Age of Enlightenment spanning seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, critical thinkers viewed religion as antithetical to reason. For them Middle Ages represented opposite of Age of Reason. Baruch Spinoza, Bernard Fontenelle, Immanuel Kant, David Hume, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, Denis Diderot, Voltaire, Marquis De Sade, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau attacked Middle Ages as period dominated by religion. Edward Gibbon expressed contempt for rubbish of Dark Ages in his History of Decline and Fall of Roman Empire published 1788.
Disdain about medieval past was especially forthright among rationalist thinkers. They saw Middle Ages epitomizing barbaric priest-ridden world they attempted to transform. An evolution occurred in at least three ways since Petrarch's original metaphor expanded over time implicitly. Even if later humanists no longer saw themselves living in dark age, their times were still not light enough for eighteenth-century writers who considered themselves real Age of Enlightenment. Period condemned stretched to include what we now call Early Modern times.
Petrarch's darkness metaphor sharpened to take explicitly anti-religious meaning. He originally used it mainly to deplore lack of secular achievement. Enlightenment figures transformed this into attack on religious authority itself. Their writings framed the era as one where faith opposed reason directly. This philosophical agenda justified their rejection of medieval institutions while promoting new intellectual frameworks based on empirical observation rather than divine revelation.
In late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries Romantics reversed negative assessment made by Enlightenment critics through vogue for medievalism. Word Gothic had been term of opprobrium akin to vandal until mid-eighteenth century English Goths like Horace Walpole initiated Gothic Revival in arts. This stimulated interest in Middle Ages which began taking idyllic image of Age of Faith following generation.
Reaction against world dominated by Enlightenment rationalism expressed romantic view of Golden Age chivalry. Middle Ages seen with nostalgia as period social environmental harmony spiritual inspiration contrasting French Revolution excesses most all environmental social upheavals utilitarianism developing Industrial Revolution. Modern-day fairs celebrate period with merrie costumes events reflecting Romantic ideals still present today.
Alexander Michael notes how medievalism became central theme in modern England during this era. Writers sought escape from industrialization's harsh realities by idealizing past simplicity. They imagined a time when knights rode noble steeds protecting weak peasants under fair laws. Such visions ignored actual violence poverty disease plaguing real medieval societies but served emotional needs of contemporary audiences seeking meaning beyond material progress.
Term widely used by nineteenth-century historians though increasingly questioned from mid-twentieth century onward. Jacob Burckhardt delineated contrast between medieval dark ages and more enlightened Renaissance in Civilization of Renaissance in Italy published 1860. Henry Thomas Buckle wrote during these rightly called Dark Ages clergy were supreme in History of Civilization in England appearing 1857. Oxford English Dictionary defined uncapitalized dark ages as term sometimes applied to mark intellectual darkness characteristic of time in 1894 edition.
Denys Hay spoke ironically of lively centuries we call dark in Annalists and Historians published 1977. Book about German literature history published 2007 described dark ages as popular if uninformed manner speaking. Chapter opens stating popular if uninformed manner refers to medieval period as dark ages though literary production did not wane then. Instead nineteenth aesthetics twentieth university curricula allowed achievements fade into obscurity.
Most modern historians avoid term preferring Early Middle Ages instead. When used some describe economic political cultural problems era while others intend neutral expression idea events seem dark due paucity historical record. Robert Sallares commented lack sources establish whether plague pandemic 541 to 750 reached Northern Europe making epithet appropriate description. Yet later twentieth century scholars became critical even nonjudgmental use reasons being questionability using term neutrally ordinary readers may misunderstand value judgment implied expression.
A 2021 lecture by Howard Williams of Chester University explored how stereotypes popular perceptions Early Middle Ages plague popular culture. Finding Dark Ages rife outside academic literature including newspaper articles media debates. Legends racial misunderstandings revitalized modern nationalists colonialists imperialists around present-day concepts identity faith origin myths appropriating historical myths modern political ends.
Andrew B.R. Elliott found far most common use Dark Ages signify general sense backwardness lack technological sophistication entrenched daily political discourse. Banal medievalisms characterized mainly unconscious unwitting little intention refer Middle Ages example insurance industry reliant paper computers called Dark Ages. These banal uses little more tropes inherently contain criticism about lack progress connecting Myth Progress observed Joseph Tainter who says genuine bias against so-called Dark Ages because modern belief society normally traverses lesser greater complexity when complexity reduced collapse perceived out ordinary thus undesirable.
Peter S.Wells wrote Barbarians to Angels: The Dark Ages Reconsidered showing centuries known popularly as Dark Ages dynamic development cultural creativity long-distance networking rather than cultural bleakness unmitigated violence. Popular understanding depends largely picture barbarian invaders Edward Gibbon presented over two hundred years ago accepted many read admire work. David C.Lindberg asserts blame most often laid feet Christian church portraying time ignorance barbarism superstition according wide-spread popular belief.
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Common questions
Who coined the term Dark Ages and when did he use it?
Cardinal Caesar Baronius applied the phrase saeculum obscurum in 1602 to describe a tumultuous period. He later used the specific term dark age for the period ending with the collapse of the Carolingian Empire in 888.
What year did Petrarch establish his view that classical antiquity was light and his own era was darkness?
Petrarch established this new way to view time during the 1330s while writing about centuries of history. By around 1343 he concluded his epic poem Africa with a prediction that a better age would follow his death.
When was the History of Decline and Fall of Roman Empire published by Edward Gibbon?
Edward Gibbon expressed contempt for the rubbish of Dark Ages in his History of Decline and Fall of Roman Empire published 1788. This work contributed to the popularity of the concept during the eighteenth-century Age of Enlightenment.
Why did Cardinal Caesar Baronius call the period between 880 and 888 the dark age?
Baronius termed the age dark primarily because of paucity of written records regarding the early part of the Middle Ages. A comparison of Migne's Patrologia Latina shows a sharp drop from thirty-four volumes in ninth century to just eight in tenth century.
Which historians wrote about the Dark Ages in the nineteenth century before modern scholars questioned the term?
Jacob Burckhardt delineated contrast between medieval dark ages and more enlightened Renaissance in Civilization of Renaissance in Italy published 1860. Henry Thomas Buckle wrote during these rightly called Dark Ages clergy were supreme in History of Civilization in England appearing 1857.