King Arthur: the story on HearLore

King Arthur

King Arthur never appears in any surviving manuscript written between the years 400 and 820, leaving a three-century gap between the supposed time of his life and the first written records of his deeds. This absence has led most modern historians to conclude that he was not a historical figure, but rather a folk hero whose name was attached to real events long after they occurred. The earliest datable mention of Arthur comes from the Historia Brittonum, a 9th-century Latin historical compilation attributed to a Welsh cleric named Nennius, which lists twelve battles he fought, culminating in the Battle of Badon where he is said to have single-handedly killed 960 men. Yet even this source is treated with skepticism by scholars who note that the text was written three hundred years after the events it describes, and that the Annales Cambriae, another early source linking Arthur to the Battle of Badon, likely derived its information from the Historia Brittonum itself rather than independent records. The lack of contemporary evidence has prompted historian David Dumville to state that Arthur owes his place in history books to a no smoke without fire school of thought, and that we must reject him from our histories and, above all, from the titles of our books.

The Nameless King

The origin of the name Arthur remains a matter of intense scholarly debate, with the most widely accepted etymology deriving it from the Roman nomen gentile Artorius, a family name of obscure and contested origin. Linguist Stephan Zimmer suggests that Artorius possibly had a Celtic origin, being a Latinization of a hypothetical name Artorījos, in turn derived from an older patronym Arto-rīg-ios, meaning son of the bear or warrior-king. This patronym is unattested, but the root Arto-rīg, meaning bear or warrior-king, is the source of the Old Irish personal name Artrí. Another commonly proposed derivation of Arthur from Welsh arth meaning bear plus gwr meaning man is not accepted by modern scholars for phonological and orthographic reasons, as a Brittonic compound name Arto-uiros should produce Old Welsh Artgur rather than Arthur. An alternative theory, which has gained only limited acceptance among professional scholars, derives the name Arthur from Arcturus, the brightest star in the constellation Boötes, near Ursa Major or the Great Bear, whose brightness and position in the sky led people to regard it as the guardian of the bear and the leader of the other stars in Boötes. Many other theories exist, including Messapian or Etruscan origins, but no single explanation has achieved universal consensus.

The Pre-Galfridian Hero

Before the 12th century, Arthur was portrayed not as a king but as a peerless warrior who functioned as the monster-hunting protector of Britain from all internal and external threats. Some of these threats were human, such as the Saxons he fights in the Historia Brittonum, but the majority were supernatural, including giant cat-monsters, destructive divine boars, dragons, dogheads, giants, and witches. The pre-Galfridian Arthur was also a figure of folklore and localised magical wonder-tales, the leader of a band of superhuman heroes who live in the wilds of the landscape. He had a close connection with the Welsh Otherworld, Annwn, launching assaults on Otherworldly fortresses in search of treasure and freeing their prisoners. His warband in the earliest sources included former pagan gods, and his wife and his possessions were clearly Otherworldly in origin. One of the most famous Welsh poetic references to Arthur comes in the collection of heroic death-songs known as Y Gododdin, attributed to the 6th-century poet Aneirin, where a stanza praises the bravery of a warrior who slew 300 enemies but says that despite this, he was no Arthur. Several poems attributed to Taliesin, a poet said to have lived in the 6th century, also refer to Arthur, including Kadeir Teyrnon meaning The Chair of the Prince, which refers to Arthur the Blessed, and Preiddeu Annwn meaning The Spoils of Annwn, which recounts an expedition of Arthur to the Otherworld.

Common questions

When was King Arthur first mentioned in historical records?

The earliest datable mention of King Arthur comes from the 9th-century Latin historical compilation known as the Historia Brittonum. This text lists twelve battles he fought, culminating in the Battle of Badon where he is said to have single-handedly killed 960 men.

What is the origin of the name King Arthur?

The most widely accepted etymology derives the name King Arthur from the Roman nomen gentile Artorius, a family name of obscure and contested origin. Linguist Stephan Zimmer suggests that Artorius possibly had a Celtic origin, being a Latinization of a hypothetical name Artorījos, in turn derived from an older patronym Arto-rīg-ios, meaning son of the bear or warrior-king.

How did Geoffrey of Monmouth change the story of King Arthur?

Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae, completed in the 1130s, transformed King Arthur from a folk hero into a king of all Britain. He incorporated Arthur's father Uther Pendragon, his magician advisor Merlin, and the story of Arthur's conception, in which Uther, disguised as his enemy Gorlois by Merlin's magic, sleeps with Gorlois's wife Igerna at Tintagel.

Why did King Arthur become a do-nothing king in the 12th and 13th centuries?

During the 12th and 13th centuries, the role of King Arthur in continental romance shifted dramatically from a great and ferocious warrior to the roi fainéant, the do-nothing king. His character became a wise, dignified, even-tempered, somewhat bland, and occasionally feeble monarch whose inactivity and acquiescence constituted a central flaw in his otherwise ideal society.

When was the alleged tomb of King Arthur discovered at Glastonbury Abbey?

In 1191 the alleged tomb of King Arthur was identified in an orchestrated discovery at Glastonbury Abbey. This event occurred decades after the first mention of his return by William of Malmesbury in 1125 and was likely motivated by the Abbey wanting to stand out with an illustrious tomb or the Plantagenet regime to put an end to a legendary rival figure.

Which 19th-century work reawakened interest in King Arthur and the medieval romances?

In the early 19th century medievalism, Romanticism and the Gothic Revival reawakened interest in King Arthur and the medieval romances, shaping a new code of ethics for 19th-century gentlemen around the chivalric ideals embodied in the Arthur of romance. This renewed interest first made itself felt in 1816, when Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur was reprinted for the first time since 1634.

The Sleeping King

That Arthur never died but is awaiting his return in some remote spot, often sleeping, is a central motif connected to the Arthurian legends. Before the twelfth century there are, as in the Englynion y Beddau, references to the absence of a grave for Arthur suggesting that he was considered immortal and not dead, but in this poem there is no indication that he was expected to return. From the early twelfth century onwards several sources report a popular belief in the return of King Arthur, although most often critically and mockingly presented. His future return is first mentioned by William of Malmesbury in 1125, stating that but Arthur's grave is nowhere seen, whence antiquity of fables still claims that he will return. The Miracles of St. Mary of Laon, written by a French cleric and chronicler named Hériman of Tournai about 1145, but referring to events occurring in 1113, mentions the Breton and Cornish belief that Arthur still lived. In 1191 the alleged tomb of Arthur was identified in an orchestrated discovery at Glastonbury Abbey. Whereas numerous scholars have argued that this could have been due to the Abbey wanting to stand out with an illustrious tomb, or to a desire of the Plantagenet regime to put an end to a legendary rival figure who inspired tenacious Celtic opposition to their rule, it may also have been motivated by how the Arthurian expectations were highly problematic to contemporary Christianity. The longing of the return of a mighty immortal figure returning before the end of time to re-establish his perfect rule, not only ran against basic Catholic tenets but could even threaten the quintessential focus on the longing for the return of Jesus. This was further aggravated by how the stories about Arthur sometimes invoked more emotions than biblical tales. Decades of elite critique of the popular conviction among otherwise pious Catholic Celts in Britain and Brittany had done nothing to suppress these beliefs, whereas the orchestration of Arthur's physical remains effectively eliminated the possibility of his return without overtly criticizing anyone's beliefs. After the 1191 discovery of his alleged tomb, Arthur became more of a figure of folk legends, found sleeping in various remote caves all over Britain and some other places, and at times, roaming the night as a spectre, like in the Wild Hunt.

The Victorian Ideal

In the early 19th century medievalism, Romanticism and the Gothic Revival reawakened interest in Arthur and the medieval romances, shaping a new code of ethics for 19th-century gentlemen around the chivalric ideals embodied in the Arthur of romance. This renewed interest first made itself felt in 1816, when Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur was reprinted for the first time since 1634. Pre-eminent among these was Alfred Tennyson, whose first Arthurian poem The Lady of Shalott was published in 1832. Arthur himself played a minor role in some of these works, following in the medieval romance tradition, but Tennyson's Arthurian work reached its peak of popularity with Idylls of the King, which reworked the entire narrative of Arthur's life for the Victorian era. It was first published in 1859 and sold 10,000 copies within the first week. In the Idylls, Arthur became a symbol of ideal manhood who ultimately failed, through human weakness, to establish a perfect kingdom on earth. Tennyson's works prompted a large number of imitators, generated considerable public interest in the legends of Arthur and the character himself, and brought Malory's tales to a wider audience. Indeed, the first modernisation of Malory's great compilation of Arthur's tales was published in 1862, shortly after Idylls appeared, and there were six further editions and five competitors before the century ended. This interest in the Arthur of romance and his associated stories continued through the 19th century and into the 20th, and influenced poets such as William Morris and Pre-Raphaelite artists including Edward Burne-Jones. Even the humorous tale of Tom Thumb, which had been the primary manifestation of Arthur's legend in the 18th century, was rewritten after the publication of Idylls. While Tom maintained his small stature and remained a figure of comic relief, his story now included more elements from the medieval Arthurian romances and Arthur is treated more seriously and historically in these new versions.

The Modern Legend

In the latter half of the 20th century, the influence of the romance tradition of Arthur continued, through novels such as T. H. White's The Once and Future King in 1958, Mary Stewart's The Crystal Cave in 1970 and its four sequels, Thomas Berger's tragicomic Arthur Rex and Marion Zimmer Bradley's The Mists of Avalon in 1982, in addition to comic strips such as Prince Valiant from 1937 onward. Tennyson had reworked the romance tales of Arthur to suit and comment upon the issues of his day, and the same is often the case with modern treatments too. Mary Stewart's first three Arthurian novels present the wizard Merlin as the central character, rather than Arthur, and The Crystal Cave is narrated by Merlin in the first person, whereas Bradley's tale takes a feminist approach to Arthur and his legend, in contrast to the narratives of Arthur found in medieval materials. American authors often rework the story of Arthur to be more consistent with values such as equality and democracy. In John Cowper Powys's Porius: A Romance of the Dark Ages in 1951, set in Wales in 499, just prior to the Saxon invasion, Arthur, the Emperor of Britain, is only a minor character, whereas Myrddin and Nineue, Tennyson's Vivien, are major figures. The romance Arthur has become popular in film and theatre as well, with T. H. White's novel adapted into the Lerner and Loewe stage musical Camelot in 1960 and Walt Disney's animated film The Sword in the Stone in 1963. Camelot, with its focus on the love of Lancelot and Guinevere and the cuckolding of Arthur, was itself made into a film of the same name in 1967. The romance tradition of Arthur is particularly evident and in critically respected films like Robert Bresson's Lancelot du Lac in 1974, Éric Rohmer's Perceval le Gallois in 1978 and John Boorman's Excalibur in 1981, and it is also the main source of the material used in the Arthurian spoof Monty Python and the Holy Grail in 1975. Attempts to portray Arthur as a genuine historical figure of the 5th century, stripping away the romance, have also emerged, with this return to the medieval chronicle tradition of Geoffrey of Monmouth and the Historia Brittonum becoming a recent trend which became dominant in Arthurian literature in the years following the outbreak of the Second World War, when Arthur's legendary resistance to Germanic enemies struck a chord in Britain.