King Arthur

• 1. The Shadowed Historian

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  In 1973, historian John Morris published The Age of Arthur and made the putative reign of King Arthur the organizing principle of his history. He found little to say about a historical figure despite his effort. A decade later, archaeologist Nowell Myres observed that no figure on the borderline of history and mythology has wasted more of the historian's time. Most modern historians writing about the period do not think he was a real person. They argue that details of his story are mainly composed of Welsh mythology, English folklore, and literary invention. One school of thought cites entries in the Historia Brittonum and Annales Cambriae as evidence for a genuine Romano-British leader who fought against invading Anglo-Saxons. These texts date to three hundred years after he is supposed to have lived. Recent studies question the reliability of the Historia Brittonum. It lists twelve battles where Arthur supposedly killed nine hundred sixty men single-handedly at the Battle of Badon. Archaeological evidence shows early Anglo-Saxon migration reversed between five hundred and five hundred fifty AD. This timing concurs with Frankish chronicles and supports the idea of a British victory at Badon Hill attributed to him by Nennius. Yet monks at Glastonbury claimed to discover his grave in 1180. The other text supporting his existence is the tenth-century Annales Cambriae. It links Arthur with the Battle of Badon dated to 516, 518 and mentions the Battle of Camlann in 537, 539. Modern research suggests these annals were added sometime in the tenth century. They may never have existed in any earlier set of annals. The historian David Dumville wrote that there is no historical evidence about Arthur. He stated we must reject him from our histories and above all from the titles of our books.

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• 2. Echoes In Welsh Poetry

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  One stanza from the oldest surviving manuscript of Y Gododdin praises the bravery of a warrior who slew three hundred enemies. It says that despite this feat, he was no Arthur. John Koch's view that this passage dates from a seventh-century version is regarded as unproven. Ninth- or tenth-century dates are often proposed for it instead. Several poems attributed to Taliesin also refer to Arthur. These texts probably date from between the eighth and twelfth centuries. One poem called Kadeir Teyrnon refers to Arthur the Blessed. Another titled Preiddeu Annwn recounts an expedition of Arthur to the Otherworld. A third text named Marwnat vthyr pen dragon refers to Arthur's valour. It suggests a father-son relationship for Arthur and Uther that predates Geoffrey of Monmouth. An early Welsh poem found in the Black Book of Carmarthen takes the form of a dialogue between Arthur and a gatekeeper. Arthur recounts the names and deeds of himself and his men. He notably mentions Cei and Bedwyr. Arthur appears in some other early Latin texts besides the Historia Brittonum and Annales Cambriae. The earliest vitae of post-Roman saints probably date from the eleventh century. According to the Life of Saint Gildas written in the early-twelfth century by Caradoc of Llancarfan, Arthur killed Gildas's brother Hueil. He rescued his wife Gwenhwyfar from Glastonbury. In the Life of Saint Cadoc written around 1100, the saint gives protection to a man who killed three of Arthur's soldiers. Arthur demands a herd of cattle as wergeld for his men. When Arthur takes possession of the animals, they turn into bundles of ferns.

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• 3. The Fabricated Empire

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  Geoffrey of Monmouth completed his Historia Regum Britanniae in the 1130s. This work contains the first narrative account of Arthur's life. It is an imaginative and fanciful account of British kings from Brutus to Cadwallader. Geoffrey places Arthur in the same post-Roman period as do earlier sources. He incorporates Arthur's father Uther Pendragon and his magician advisor Merlin. The story describes how Uther sleeps with Gorlois's wife Igerna at Tintagel. She conceives Arthur through magic disguised as his enemy. On Uther's death, the fifteen-year-old Arthur succeeds him as King of Britain. He fights battles culminating in the Battle of Bath. He defeats Picts and Scots before creating an empire through conquests of Ireland, Iceland, and Orkney Islands. After twelve years of peace, he expands further to take control of Norway, Denmark, and Gaul. His victory leads to confrontation with Rome. Arthur and his warriors defeat Roman emperor Lucius Tiberius in Gaul. He hears that his nephew Modredus has married his wife Guenhuuara and seized the throne. Arthur returns to Britain and kills Modredus on the river Camblam. He is mortally wounded and taken to the isle of Avalon to be healed. He never appears again. Well over two hundred manuscript copies of Geoffrey's Latin work are known to have survived. Sixty manuscripts are extant containing Welsh-language versions called Brut y Brenhinedd. Brynley Roberts argued that the Arthurian section is Geoffrey's literary creation. It owes nothing to prior narrative. William of Newburgh commented in the late-twelfth century that Geoffrey made up his narrative. He suggested this was due to an inordinate love of lying.

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• 4. The Do-Nothing King

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  Chrétien de Troyes wrote five Arthurian romances between 1155 and 1190. Erec and Enide and Cligès demonstrate a shift away from the heroic world of earlier traditions. Yvain features Gawain in a supernatural adventure while Arthur remains on the sidelines. Lancelot introduces his adulterous relationship with Arthur's queen Guinevere. Perceval introduces the Holy Grail and the Fisher King. Chrétien established the ideal form for the diffusion of that legend. In these continental romances, Arthur becomes the roi fainéant or do-nothing king. His inactivity and acquiescence constitute a central flaw in his otherwise ideal society. He simply turns pale and silent when he learns of Lancelot's affair with Guinevere. In another tale, he is unable to stay awake after a feast and has to retire for a nap. The most significant prose works were written in the first half of the thirteenth century. These include Estoire del Saint Grail, Estoire de Merlin, Lancelot propre, Queste del Saint Graal, and Mort Artu. They combine to form the first coherent version of the entire Arthurian legend. This cycle continued the trend towards reducing the role played by Arthur. It introduced Galahad and expanded the role of Merlin. Mordred became the result of an incestuous relationship between Arthur and his sister Morgause. Camelot was established as Arthur's primary court. During this period, Arthur became one of the Nine Worthies. Jacques de Longuyon listed them in Voeux du Paon in 1312. Thomas Malory retold the entire legend in Le Morte d'Arthur published by William Caxton in 1485. Most later Arthurian works are derivative of Malory's book.

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• 5. The Victorian Rebirth

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  In 1634 saw the last printing of Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur for nearly two hundred years. King Arthur and the Arthurian legend were not entirely abandoned but taken less seriously until the early nineteenth century. Medievalism, Romanticism, and the Gothic Revival reawakened interest in Arthur. A new code of ethics for nineteenth-century gentlemen shaped itself around chivalric ideals. Malory's work was reprinted for the first time since 1634 in 1816. Alfred Tennyson's first Arthurian poem The Lady of Shalott was published in 1832. His Idylls of the King reached its peak of popularity when it was first published in 1859. It sold ten thousand copies within the first week. In these poems, Arthur became a symbol of ideal manhood who ultimately failed through human weakness. Tennyson's works prompted a large number of imitators and generated considerable public interest. The first modernization of Malory's great compilation appeared in 1862. There were six further editions and five competitors before the century ended. This interest influenced poets such as William Morris and Pre-Raphaelite artists including Edward Burne-Jones. Even the humorous tale of Tom Thumb was rewritten after the publication of Idylls. While Tom maintained his small stature, his story now included more elements from medieval romances. Richard Wagner's Arthurian opera Parsifal provided a notable instance where Arthur reverted to his medieval status or disappeared entirely. By the end of the nineteenth century, it was confined mainly to Pre-Raphaelite imitators.

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• 6. The Modern Legend

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  In the latter half of the twentieth century, novels like T. H. White's The Once and Future King appeared in 1958. Mary Stewart's The Crystal Cave followed in 1970 with four sequels. Thomas Berger wrote Arthur Rex while Marion Zimmer Bradley published The Mists of Avalon in 1982. Comic strips such as Prince Valiant ran from 1937 onward. Walt Disney released The Sword in the Stone animated film in 1963. Lancelot du Lac came out in 1974 and Perceval le Gallois in 1978. John Boorman's Excalibur arrived in 1981. Monty Python and the Holy Grail spoofed the tradition in 1975. Attempts to portray Arthur as a genuine historical figure emerged following the Second World War. Rosemary Sutcliff published The Lantern Bearers in 1959 and Sword at Sunset in 1963. Parke Godwin released Firelord in 1980. Stephen Lawhead began The Pendragon Cycle in 1987. Nikolai Tolstoy wrote The Coming of the King in 1988. Jack Whyte started The Camulod Chronicles in 1992. Bernard Cornwell launched The Warlord Chronicles in 1995. In the 1930s, the Order of the Fellowship of the Knights of the Round Table formed in Britain. Hundreds of thousands of boys and girls joined Arthurian youth groups in the United States. Norris J. Lacy observed that the popular notion of Arthur appears limited but is profoundly embedded in modern culture.

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