Buddhism
In the 5th century BCE, a man named Siddhartha Gautama walked the eastern Gangetic plain of India. He was born in Lumbini, now part of modern Nepal, and grew up in Kapilavastu near the border with India. Early texts describe his father as King Suddhodana and his mother as Queen Maya, though scholars like Richard Gombrich doubt these royal claims. Evidence suggests he belonged to the Shakya community, which operated as an oligarchy or republic-like council without formal ranks. His life ended at age 80 in Kushinagar, India, after achieving final nirvana. Before this end, he spent decades teaching the Dharma he discovered under the Bodhi Tree in Bodh Gaya. The Buddha taught that suffering arises from attachment to impermanent states and things. He rejected both extreme asceticism and sensory indulgence, proposing instead a Middle Way between eternalism and nihilism.
The Four Noble Truths form the basic orientation of Buddhist thought. They state that dukkha is an innate characteristic of the perpetual cycle of grasping at things, ideas, and habits. This unsatisfactory nature stems from craving, desire, or attachment known as tanha. Liberation comes through the cessation of this craving via the Noble Eightfold Path. Buddhism teaches three marks of existence: impermanence, unsatisfactoriness, and non-self. Non-self means living things have no permanent immanent soul or essence. The belief in a self over the five skandhas, body, feelings, perceptions, impulses, and consciousness, is illusory and causes suffering. Dependent origination explains how all phenomena arise from conditions created by plurality of causes. It links ignorance to karmic formations, which lead to consciousness, then to sentient bodies, senses, feeling, craving, grasping, becoming, birth, and finally old age and death. Breaking these twelve links allows liberation from endless cycles of rebirth and suffering.
Two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars: Theravada and Mahayana. Theravada emphasizes attaining arhatship as a means of transcending the individual self and ending the cycle of death and rebirth. It is followed mainly in Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Sri Lanka. Mahayana emphasizes the Bodhisattva ideal, where one works for the liberation of all sentient beings. This branch includes traditions like Tiantai, Chan, Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren, and Tendai. It is predominantly practiced in Nepal, Bhutan, China, Malaysia, Vietnam, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan. Vajrayana incorporates esoteric tantric techniques and may be viewed as a separate branch or tradition within Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, a form of Vajrayana, is practiced in Himalayan states, Mongolia, Russian Kalmykia, and Tuva. Japanese Shingon also preserves the Vajrayana tradition as transmitted to China. Until the early 2nd millennium, Buddhism was widely practiced in the Indian subcontinent before declining there. It also had a foothold elsewhere in Asia, including Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan.
The practice of dhyana aids in maintaining a calm mind and avoiding disturbance by mindfulness of disturbing thoughts and feelings. Samadhi is defined as one-pointedness of mind on the object to be investigated. Vipassana focuses on generating penetrating and critical insight into the nature of reality. The four Brahma-vihara are virtues or directions for meditation: loving-kindness, compassion, empathetic joy, and equanimity. These help a person be reborn in the heavenly realm. Monastic communities follow Vinaya codes that regulate acts like ordination. The Patimokkha includes 227 offenses and 75 rules of decorum for monks in the Theravadin tradition. Laypeople observe Five Precepts, which include abstaining from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, false speech, and intoxication. Renunciation involves giving up actions and desires seen as unwholesome, such as lust for sensuality. Celibacy is another form of renunciation taught by the Buddha. Restraint in eating means not eating after noon for monks. Devout laypersons follow this rule during special days of religious observance called Uposatha.
Buddhist texts were originally transmitted orally before being written down in Sanskrit, Pali, Tibetan, and Chinese. The earliest evidence of yogis and their meditative traditions appears in the Keśin hymn 10.136 of the Rigveda. The oldest surviving Buddhist text with Vinaya rules is an ancient Chinese translation. The Buddhist canon is vast, containing philosophical traditions and many different textual collections in various languages. Early texts describe the Buddha's life but are inconsistent regarding details. Scholars note that some stories about his background may have been invented or interpolated later into Buddhist texts. The term Buddhism itself is an occidental neologism used roughly to translate Dharma. Followers referred to themselves as Sakyan-s or Sakyabhiksu in ancient India. Donors adopted Siddhartha Gautama's family name to assert legitimacy as heirs. The development of the Buddhist canon involved evolving interpretations across centuries. Different schools assigned varying importance and canonicity to specific texts. This evolution created diverse traditions with unique baskets of teachings and authentic interpretations of the original message.
Buddhism spread throughout much of Asia over centuries before reaching the West in the 20th century. Today it is the world's fourth-largest religion with approximately 320 million followers comprising 4.1% of the global population. In contemporary secular societies, adaptation has occurred through engagement with modern philosophy and psychology. Meditation practices like mindfulness have gained popularity globally outside traditional religious contexts. Various Mahayana sutras promote vegetarianism out of compassion, influencing ethical discussions worldwide. Devotional practices such as chanting mantras and reciting sutras continue to be central to community life. The Sangha preserves and passes down Buddha Dharma while acting as a field of merit for laypersons. Modern scholars analyze these traditions using historical methods alongside philosophical inquiry. Institutions like monasteries maintain continuity while adapting to new cultural environments. The movement continues to evolve as it interacts with diverse global cultures and intellectual frameworks.
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Common questions
Who founded Buddhism and where was Siddhartha Gautama born?
Siddhartha Gautama founded Buddhism and was born in Lumbini, now part of modern Nepal. He grew up in Kapilavastu near the border with India before walking the eastern Gangetic plain in the 5th century BCE.
What are the Four Noble Truths taught by Siddhartha Gautama?
The Four Noble Truths state that dukkha is an innate characteristic of the perpetual cycle of grasping at things, ideas, and habits. This unsatisfactory nature stems from craving or attachment known as tanha, which liberation comes through via the Noble Eightfold Path.
Which countries practice Theravada and Mahayana branches of Buddhism today?
Theravada Buddhism is followed mainly in Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Sri Lanka. Mahayana Buddhism is predominantly practiced in Nepal, Bhutan, China, Malaysia, Vietnam, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan.
How many offenses does the Patimokkha include for monks in the Theravadin tradition?
The Patimokkha includes 227 offenses and 75 rules of decorum for monks in the Theravadin tradition. Monastic communities follow Vinaya codes that regulate acts like ordination and restraint in eating after noon.
When did Buddhism spread to the West and how many followers exist today?
Buddhism reached the West in the 20th century after spreading throughout much of Asia over centuries. Today it is the world's fourth-largest religion with approximately 320 million followers comprising 4.1% of the global population.