Bodhisattva
The Sanskrit word bodhisattva combines two roots: bodhi, meaning awakening or enlightenment, and sattva, a term with contested definitions. Scholars have debated whether sattva means being, mind, strength, or essence. Early interpretations describe the bodhisattva as a sentient being destined for full enlightenment. Modern scholar H. Kern translated it as a "sentient or reasonable being, possessing bodhi." T. W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede called it a "bodhi-being," one destined to attain fullest Enlightenment. M. Anesaki defined it simply as "a being seeking for bodhi." German scholars like M. Winternitz used the phrase "Enlightenment Being" while M. Walleser preferred "Wisdom Being." Har Dayal suggested the term may derive from bodhi-sakta, meaning "one who is devoted to bodhi" or "attached to bodhi." This reading draws on the Sanskrit root sañj, which implies clinging, joining, or being fond of something. K.R. Norman proposed that satta carries the meaning of śakta, making bodhisatta mean "capable of enlightenment." Another possibility found in Ksemendra's AvadanakalpaIata suggests sattva means strength, energy, vigour, power, or courage. Har Dayal supports this by linking it to the Vedic word satvan, meaning a strong or valiant man, hero, or warrior. Thus bodhisatta could be interpreted as a "heroic being" or "spiritual warrior." Some Indian commentators like Prajñakaramati interpret sattva as a synonym for citta (mind) or vyavasāya (decision). Tibetan lexicographers translate bodhisattva as byang chub sems dpa, combining mind and heroic strength. Chinese Buddhists generally use pusa, a phonetic transcription, though early translators sometimes rendered it as mingshi, meaning "a person who understands." Monier-Williams translated the term as one who has perfect wisdom as his essence, drawing from sattva's meaning of substance or true nature.
In pre-sectarian Buddhism, the term bodhisatta referred to Gautama Buddha during his previous lives and as a young man striving toward liberation. Early texts regularly describe him saying, "when I was an unawakened Bodhisatta," focusing on his spiritual development before awakening. Bhikkhu Analayo notes these passages highlight three themes: overcoming unwholesome states, developing mental tranquillity, and growing insight. The Acchariyabbhutadhamma-sutta (MN 123) details the marvelous qualities of the bodhisattva Gautama while living in Tušita heaven. It describes how he possessed mindfulness and clear comprehension, with his lifespan, appearance, and glory exceeding all devas. Miracles accompanied his conception and birth, including taking seven steps and proclaiming this would be his last life. Another source, the Mahāpadāna sutta, discusses bodhisattva qualities across six previous Buddhas like Vipaśyī. The Discourse on an Explanation about the Past (MÄ 66) features Maitreya aspiring to become a future Buddha, receiving a prediction from Sakyamuni. Stories in the Ekottarika-ägama present Maitreya as an example figure, teaching the path of six perfections. In the Pali canon, the bodhisattva remains subject to birth, illness, death, sorrow, defilement, and delusion. The oldest known story of becoming a bodhisattva involves Gautama's encounter with Dīpankara. A previous incarnation named Sumedha offered five blue lotuses and spread his hair for Dīpankara to walk on, resolving to become a Buddha. Dīpankara confirmed their future Buddhahood. Early authors viewed making a resolution before a living Buddha and receiving confirmation as necessary to become a bodhisattva. Jataka tales became central by the time of Bharhut Stupa railings carved around 125, 100 BCE, depicting thirty stories of past lives expressing compassion and self-sacrifice. Ashokan edicts may reveal knowledge of this ideal, with one stating he set out for sambodhi.
Mahayana Buddhism universalized the bodhisattva path, opening it to everyone rather than reserving it for rare individuals. Peter Skilling states that in the first century BCE, groups of monks, nuns, and lay-followers began devoting themselves exclusively to the Bodhisatva vehicle. These Mahayanists promoted Vaipulya sutras, later called Mahayana sutras. The Lotus Sutra claims arhats who reached nirvana have not truly finished their quest and must continue striving toward supreme enlightenment. Mahayana sources depict bodhisattvas as more loving and compassionate than sravakas because they practice for others' benefit through bodhicitta. Figures like Manjushri and Avalokiteshvara personify wisdom and compassion respectively. Devotion to these figures paralleled Hindu bhakti movements, helping popularize Indian Buddhism. The Lotus Sutra also introduced ekayana, claiming all three vehicles are ultimately one path ending in Buddhahood. Nagarjuna wrote that subjects based on bodhisattva deeds were absent from non-Mahayana sutras. Asanga argued in his Mahayanasutralankara that the two vehicles differ in intention, teaching, means, support, and duration. Yogacara schools developed theories of three gotras, suggesting only those with a bodhisattva lineage could enter the path. East Asian Buddhism generally adopted the one-vehicle view where all teachings form a single path. Haribhadra used bodhisattva broadly to include followers of any vehicle working toward bodhi. Atisha's 11th-century Bodhipathapradipa defined the central feature as universal aspiration to end suffering via bodhicitta. Vajrayana traditions introduced new practices using mantras, mudras, and elaborate mandalas.
Mahayana texts describe four key stages demarcating the bodhisattva path: arising of thought of awakening, endurance toward unborn nature, attainment of irreversibility, and prediction of future Buddhahood. James B. Apple notes these elements constitute basic path elements found in early translations by Lokakshema and Gandharan manuscripts. The Aśtasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra divides the path into three main stages: first set out in the vehicle, irreversible stage, and bound by one more birth. Lamotte mentions four similar stages from Kumarajiva's Dazhidulun translation: producing mind of Bodhi for first time, devoted to six perfections practice, non-regression, and separated by only one lifetime from buddhahood. Early Mahayana sutras depict beginners as blind, unintelligent, lazy, or weak. The Aśtasāhasrikā states that as many bodhisattvas turn back as there are grains of sand in the Ganges River. Only one or two reach irreversibility. Texts like Akşobhyavyuha, Vimalakīrtinirdeśa, Sukhavatīvyūha, and Śūrañgamasamādhi offer methods to determine advanced status through faith in specific sutras. The Lotus Sutra assures large numbers will achieve Buddhahood with few requirements beyond hearing and accepting its teachings. Non-retrogression guarantees practitioners remain steadfast without regressing to lower realization. Some sources associate it with preparation path where commitment solidifies; others link it to first bhumi or eighth bhumi after which full Buddhahood becomes inevitable. Pure Land traditions equate rebirth in Amitabha's Sukhavati with entering non-retrogression stage.
The perfection of wisdom prajñaparamita is generally seen as most important primary virtue without which all others fall short. Madhyamakavatara states wisdom leads other perfections as a man with eyes leads the blind. This transcendent wisdom reveals phenomena are empty of self and lack inherent existence. Great compassion mahakaruna forms ethical foundation aimed at ending suffering for all sentient beings. Mindfulness smriti appears four times in list of 37 bodhipaksadharmas and serves sine qua non of moral progress. Aśtasāhasrikā requires bodhisattvas never lose mindfulness to avoid confusion or distraction. Mahayanasutralankara calls mindfulness principal asset while Asvaghosa and Shantideva warn that without it, bodhisattvas become helpless like mad elephants unable to conquer mental afflictions. Six perfections dāna generosity, śīla virtue, kşanti patience, vīrya vigor, dhyana meditation, prajña wisdom form central framework. Later texts add upaya skillful means, pranidhana vow resolve, bala spiritual power, jnana knowledge. Bodhisattvapiitaka sutra outlines path beginning with contemplating samsara failures, developing faith, giving rise to bodhicitta, practicing four immeasurables. It proceeds through six perfections then discusses four means converting sentient beings. Practices include super knowledge abhijna learning skill kauśalya accumulation merit punyasañbhara thirty-seven factors awakening bodhipakşadharma perfect mental quietude samatha insight vipasyana. Specific ethical precepts bodhisattva-sila usually taken alongside classic pratimoksha precepts though some Japanese traditions rely solely on them.
Buddhists especially Mahayanists venerate celestial bodhisattvas like Maitreya Manjushri Avalokiteshvara seen as highly spiritually advanced possessing immense magical power. Lewis Lancaster describes these heavenly bodhisattvas as either manifestations of Buddha or beings producing many bodies through great feats of magical transformation. Religious devotion likely first developed in north India and widely depicted in Gandharan and Kashmiri art. Asian art typically portrays them as princes and princesses wearing royal robes and jewelry since they are princes of Dharma. Depictions aspire to express qualities such as loving-kindness metta compassion karuna empathetic joy mudita equanimity upekkha. Literature glorifying such figures remains very popular including More Records of Kuan-shih-yin's Responsive Manifestations by Lu Kao influential in China. Tibetan Mañi Kambum focuses on Chenrezig Avalokiteshvara country patron bodhisattva and his miraculous activities. The Lotus Sutra chapter states calling Avalokiteshvara mind helps save from natural disasters demons calamities protecting from afflictions lust anger ignorance. Bodhisattvas transform into whatever physical form useful helping sentient beings god bird male female even Buddha. Great translator Xuanzang constantly prayed to Avalokiteshvara for protection during long journey to India. Eight main Bodhisattvas known as Eight Close Sons appear in numerous esoteric mandalas like Garbhadhatu mandala. Standard listing includes Manjushri Gentle Glory Kumarabhuta Young Prince main wisdom bodhisattva, Avalokiteshvara Lord who gazes down savior great compassion Vajrapani Vajra hand protector Mahasthamaprapta East Asian source Maitreya Friendly One future Buddha our world Ksitigarba Earth Source Akasagarba Space Source Sarvanivaranaviskambhin He.
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Common questions
What is the meaning of the Sanskrit word bodhisattva?
The Sanskrit word bodhisattva combines two roots: bodhi, meaning awakening or enlightenment, and sattva, a term with contested definitions. Scholars have debated whether sattva means being, mind, strength, or essence.
Who was Gautama Buddha before he became enlightened according to early Buddhism?
In pre-sectarian Buddhism, the term bodhisatta referred to Gautama Buddha during his previous lives and as a young man striving toward liberation. Early texts regularly describe him saying when I was an unawakened Bodhisatta focusing on his spiritual development before awakening.
When did Mahayana Buddhism universalize the bodhisattva path for everyone?
Peter Skilling states that in the first century BCE groups of monks nuns and lay-followers began devoting themselves exclusively to the Bodhisatva vehicle. These Mahayanists promoted Vaipulya sutras later called Mahayana sutras.
How many stages does the bodhisattva path contain in Mahayana texts?
Mahayana texts describe four key stages demarcating the bodhisattva path arising of thought of awakening endurance toward unborn nature attainment of irreversibility and prediction of future Buddhahood. James B. Apple notes these elements constitute basic path elements found in early translations by Lokakshema and Gandharan manuscripts.
What are the six perfections practiced by bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism?
Six perfections dāna generosity śīla virtue kşanti patience vīrya vigor dhyana meditation prajña wisdom form central framework. Later texts add upaya skillful means pranidhana vow resolve bala spiritual power jnana knowledge.