Vajrayana
In the 5th century, a new spiritual current began to flow through medieval India. This movement emerged from pre-existing Tantric traditions within Hinduism that had been developing during the first millennium CE. By the 7th century, distinct Buddhist tantric traditions arose in regions now known as Pakistan and parts of northern India. These early practices incorporated techniques like mantras, mudras, and visualizations that transformed ordinary experiences into paths toward liberation. The tradition spread rapidly across Southeast, East, and Central Asia, giving rise to unique schools in Tibet and Japan. Mahasiddhas, wandering yogis who thrived during the latter half of the first millennium, used methods radically different from those found in traditional monasteries. They practiced on charnel grounds and engaged in tantric feasts that included dancing, singing, and sometimes the ingestion of taboo substances. At least two of these mahasiddhas were comparable with Shaiva Nath saints such as Gorakshanath and Matsyendranath. A movement called Sahaja-siddhi developed in the 8th century in Bengal, dominated by long-haired, wandering mahasiddhas who openly challenged the Buddhist establishment.
The philosophical view of Vajrayana is based on Mahayana Buddhist philosophy, mainly the Madhyamaka and Yogacara schools. The major difference seen by Vajrayana thinkers is the superiority of Tantric methods which provide a faster vehicle to liberation. The importance of the theory of emptiness is central to the Tantric Buddhist view and practice. Because of this, tantric practice such as self-visualization as the deity is seen as no less real than everyday reality but a process of transforming reality itself. The doctrine of Buddha-nature became an important theory that served as the basis for Tantric views. This intrinsic secret behind diverse manifestation is Tantra's utmost secret and aim. In Vajrayana, negative mental factors such as desire, hatred, greed, and pride are used as part of the path. As French Indologist Madeleine Biardeau notes, the tantric doctrine is an attempt to place kama, desire, in every meaning of the word, in the service of liberation. There is no strict separation of the profane or samsara and the sacred or nirvana; rather, they exist in a continuum. Everyone is seen as containing the seed of enlightenment which is covered over by defilements. Vajrayana sees Buddhahood not as something outside or an event in the future but as immanently present.
A distinctive feature of Vajrayana Buddhism is its emphasis on esoteric transmission where teachings are passed directly from teacher to student through initiation ceremonies. Practitioners often engage in deity yoga, a meditative practice where one visualizes oneself as a deity embodying enlightened qualities to transform perception of reality. Central to tantric practice is the use of mantras and seed syllables called bijas. Mantras are words, phrases, or collections of syllables used for various meditative, magical, and ritual ends. They are traditionally believed to have spiritual power that can lead to enlightenment as well as supramundane abilities. Some Vajrayana rituals traditionally included the use of certain taboo substances such as blood, semen, alcohol, and urine as ritual offerings and sacraments. Tantric feasts and initiations sometimes employed substances like human flesh though some are often replaced with less taboo substances such as yogurt. The tradition also employs rich visual imagery including mudras, complex mandalas, and depictions of wrathful deities that serve as meditation aids. A vajra is a scepter-like ritual object which has a sphere at its center and variable number of spokes at each end. It is often traditionally employed in tantric rituals in combination with the bell or ghanta.
Tradition asserts that these teachings have been passed down through an unbroken lineage going back to the historical Buddha sometimes via other Buddhas or bodhisattvas like Vajrapani. This lineage-based transmission ensures the preservation of the purity and effectiveness of the teachings. In Tibet, Padmasambhava was invited by King Trisong Detsen sometime before 767 along with Śāntarakshita. Mahasiddhas date to the medieval period in North India and used methods radically different from those used in Buddhist monasteries. According to Robert Thurman, these tantric figures thrived during the latter half of the first millennium CE. John Myrdhin Reynolds notes they practiced on charnel grounds and engaged in tantric feasts. At least two of the mahasiddhas cited in the Buddhist literature are comparable with Shaiva Nath saints. The Jñana Tilaka Tantra states that the tantras will be explained by the bodhisattva Vajrapani. Some accounts attribute the revelation of Buddhist tantras to Padmasambhava saying he was an emanation of Amitabha and Avalokiteshvara. Other accounts maintain Padmasambhava is a direct reincarnation of Buddha Shakyamuni. Sakya Pandita lived from 1182 to 1251 while Longchenpa lived from 1308 to 1364 and expanded on these philosophies in their tantric commentaries.
Vajrayana has given rise to various sub-traditions across Asia including Tibet, Japan, China, Korea, and Southeast Asia. In Tibet it evolved into Tibetan Buddhism which became the dominant spiritual tradition integrating local beliefs and practices. In Japan it influenced Shingon Buddhism established by Kukai emphasizing use of mantras and rituals. Chinese Esoteric Buddhism emerged blending Vajrayana practices with existing Chinese Buddhist traditions though this is no longer a separate sect and has mostly mixed in with normal exoteric Buddhism. Esoteric and Tantric teachings followed the same route into northern China arriving via Silk Road and Southeast Asian Maritime trade routes sometime during first half of 7th century. The primary texts of Shingon Buddhism are Mahavairocana Sutra and Vajrasekhara Sutra. Esoteric Buddhist practices arrived in Korea during introduction of Buddhism to region in 372 CE. Vietnamese esotericism known as Mat Giao Friendship Association publishes Quintessence of Esoteric Buddhism in 2004. Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism refers to traditions found in Indonesian islands before rise and dominance of Islam in region between 13th and 16th centuries. The Buddhist empire of Srivijaya existed from 650 CE to 1377 CE.
Vajrayana Buddhists developed a large corpus of texts called Buddhist Tantras some of which can be traced to at least 7th century CE but might be older. According to Harunaga Isaacson their number is certainly over one thousand five hundred and he suspects indeed over two thousand. A large part of this body of texts has also been translated into Tibetan and smaller part into Chinese. Aside from these there are perhaps another two thousand or more works that are known today only from such translations. The Dunhuang manuscripts contain Tibetan Tantric manuscripts with Dalton and Schaik providing an online catalogue listing 350 Tibetan Tantric Manuscripts from Dunhuang in Stein Collection of British Library. These 350 texts are just small portion of vast cache of Dunhuang manuscripts. Vajrayana texts exhibit wide range of literary characteristics usually mix of verse and prose almost always in Sanskrit that transgresses frequently against classical norms of grammar and usage though occasionally in various Middle Indic dialects or elegant classical Sanskrit. In Chinese Mantrayana and Japanese Shingon most influential esoteric texts are Mahavairocana Tantra and Vajraśekhara Sutra.
In modern era it has spread outside Asia due to efforts of Tibetan diaspora starting from 1959 onwards. There are now international networks of Tibetan Buddhist temples and meditation centers in Western world from all four schools. A recent development is known as tantric revival movement which involved revival of Chinese Esoteric schools by Chinese students of Japanese Shingon. Some important figures of this revival include Wang Hongyuan who lived from 1876 to 1937 and Guru Wuguang who lived from 1918 to 2000 both trained in Shingon and went on to spread Shingon teachings in Chinese speaking world. These revivalist lineages exist in Hong Kong, Taiwan and Malaysia. Though they draw mainly from Shingon teachings they have also adopted some Tibetan Buddhist elements. Serious Vajrayana academic study in Western world is in early stages due to following obstacles: although large number of Tantric scriptures are extant they have not been formally ordered or systematized. Due to esoteric initiatory nature of tradition many practitioners will not divulge information or sources of their information. As with many different subjects it must be studied in context and with long history spanning many different cultures.
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Common questions
When did Vajrayana Buddhism emerge in medieval India?
Vajrayana Buddhism emerged as a distinct movement during the 5th century and developed into separate tantric traditions by the 7th century. This spiritual current arose from pre-existing Tantric traditions within Hinduism that had been developing during the first millennium CE.
Who are the Mahasiddhas mentioned in Vajrayana history?
Mahasiddhas were wandering yogis who thrived during the latter half of the first millennium and practiced methods radically different from traditional monasteries. They engaged in practices on charnel grounds and sometimes included taboo substances, with at least two comparable to Shaiva Nath saints such as Gorakshanath and Matsyendranath.
What is the philosophical basis of Vajrayana Buddhist practice?
The philosophical view of Vajrayana is based on Mahayana Buddhist philosophy, mainly the Madhyamaka and Yogacara schools. It emphasizes the theory of emptiness and uses negative mental factors like desire and hatred as part of the path toward liberation.
How was Vajrayana transmitted historically across Asia?
Vajrayana teachings have been passed down through an unbroken lineage going back to the historical Buddha via other Buddhas or bodhisattvas like Vajrapani. The tradition spread rapidly across Southeast, East, and Central Asia, giving rise to unique schools in Tibet and Japan by the 7th century.
When did Padmasambhava arrive in Tibet?
Padmasambhava was invited by King Trisong Detsen sometime before the 2nd of May 767 along with Śāntarakshita. This event marked a significant point in the development of Tibetan Buddhism which became the dominant spiritual tradition integrating local beliefs and practices.