Mongolia

• 1. Ancient Nomadic Empires

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  In 209 BC, Modu Shanyu united the Xiongnu tribes to form a confederation that would challenge the Qin dynasty. This empire stretched across the steppes and forced China to build the Great Wall of China under Marshal Meng Tian's command. The wall guarded against destructive raids by up to almost 300,000 soldiers during his tenure. Later empires like the Xianbei and Rouran Khaganate followed, with the latter being the first to use "Khagan" as an imperial title. By 1206, Temüjin took the title Genghis Khan and swept through much of Asia. His Mongol Empire became the largest contiguous land empire in world history, covering some 24 million square kilometers. It had a population of over 100 million people at its height. Under Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis, the Yuan dynasty was established with its capital in present-day Beijing. After more than a century of power, the Ming dynasty overthrew the Yuan in 1368. The Mongols fled north and resumed their earlier pattern of factional conflict. Dayan Khan and Tumen Zasagt Khan later reunited all Mongol groups under the Genghisids.

• 2. Buddhism And Qing Rule

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  In the mid-16th century, Altan Khan of the Tümed met with the Dalai Lama in 1578 and ordered the introduction of Tibetan Buddhism to Mongolia. This marked the second time this religion had occurred in the region. Abtai Khan of the Khalkha converted to Buddhism and founded the Erdene Zuu monastery in 1585. Zanabazar became the first Jebtsundamba Khutughtu in 1640. By the early 20th century, almost one-third of the adult male population were Buddhist monks. In 1911, Mongolia declared independence after the fall of the Qing dynasty. However, the Republic of China considered Mongolia part of its territory. By 1636, most Inner Mongolian tribes submitted to the Manchus who founded the Qing dynasty. The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691. Outer Mongolia was given relative autonomy administered by hereditary Genghisid khanates. Over the course of the 19th century, feudal lords attached more importance to representation than responsibilities towards their subjects. Usurious practices by Chinese traders and collection of imperial taxes in silver instead of animals resulted in widespread poverty among nomads. By 1911 there were 700 large and small monasteries in Outer Mongolia with 115,000 monks making up 21% of the population.

• 3. Soviet Alignment And Purges

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  In 1924, after the Bogd Khaan died, the country's political system changed and the Mongolian People's Republic was established as a socialist state. Khorloogiin Choibalsan rose to power in 1928. He instituted collectivization of livestock and began destruction of Buddhist monasteries. Stalinist purges which began in 1937 killed more than 30,000 people including an estimated 17,000 monks. All leaders who did not fulfill Stalin's demands to perform Red Terror against Mongolians were executed including Peljidiin Genden and Anandyn Amar. In 1930, the Soviet Union stopped Buryat migration to prevent Mongolian reunification. Comintern leader Bohumír Šmeral said "People of Mongolia are not important, the land is important." The number of Buddhist monks dropped from 100,000 in 1924 to just 110 by 1990. During the Soviet-Japanese Border War of 1939, the Soviet Union successfully defended Mongolia against Japanese expansionism at Khalkhin Gol. Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal took power on the 26th of January 1952 after Choibalsan died suspiciously in the Soviet Union in 1952. Tsedenbal was the leading political figure for over 30 years until his severe illness prompted parliament to announce his retirement in August 1984.

• 4. Democratic Transition Era

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  Mongolia conducted its own peaceful democratic revolution in early 1990 following anti-communist revolutions of 1989. This led to a multi-party system and a new constitution adopted on the 13th of February 1992. The term "People's Republic" was dropped from the country's name. The transition to a market economy was often rocky with high inflation and food shortages during the early 1990s. First election victories for non-communist parties came in 1993 for presidential elections and 1996 for parliamentary elections. China supported Mongolia's application for membership in Asia Cooperation Dialogue and granted observer status in Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. In 1997, Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization. By 2023, English was declared the first foreign language taught from third grade onward. In June 2021, former Prime Minister Ukhnaa Khurelsukh became the sixth democratically elected president after winning the presidential election. As per 2023 constitutional amendment, parliament increased seats from 76 to 126. In January 2021, Prime Minister Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh resigned after protests over treatment of a coronavirus patient.

• 5. Geography And Climate Extremes

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  Mongolia covers an area making it the 18th-largest country in the world and second largest landlocked country after Kazakhstan. It is significantly larger than Peru. Much of Mongolia consists of Mongolian-Manchurian grassland with forested areas accounting for 11.2% of total land area. The southern portion is taken up by Gobi Desert while northern and western portions are mountainous. Highest point is Khüiten Peak in Tavan bogd massif at 4,374 meters. Average annual temperature in Ulaanbaatar makes it world's coldest capital city. January averages drop as low as -30 degrees Celsius. A vast front of cold heavy shallow air comes from Siberia in winter collecting in river valleys causing very cold temperatures. Slopes of mountains are much warmer due to effects of temperature inversion. Unique microclimate exists in central Arkhangai Province where nighttime January temperatures rarely go under -15 degrees Celsius. Annual average precipitation ranges from 200 millimeters in south to 400 millimeters in north. Harsh climatic conditions known as zud result in large proportions of livestock dying from starvation or freezing temperatures.

• 6. Modern Economy And Mining

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  Economic activity has long been based on herding and agriculture though development of extensive mineral deposits emerged as driver of industrial production. Minerals represent more than 80% of exports expected to rise to 95%. In 2009 government negotiated agreement with Rio Tinto and Ivanhoe Mines to develop Oyu Tolgoi copper and gold deposit biggest foreign-investment project at time. Mine now major producer of copper and gold with plans to reach output of 500,000 tons per year. Mongolian gold production in 2015 was 15 metric tons. About 3,000 mining licenses have been issued. In September 2022 built and launched 233-kilometer direct rail link to China milestone in plan to become China's leading supplier of high-quality coal from Tavan Tolgoi mine which has over six billion tonnes reserves. Mongolia produces one-fifth world's raw cashmere. In 2023 real GDP grew by 7% due to record-high coal production driven by strong demand from China. Inflation dropped to 7% in early 2024 due to lower global food and fuel prices. As of 2024, stock exchange has 180 companies listed with total market capitalization of US$3.2 billion.