Vinaya
In the early years of the Buddha's teaching, the sangha lived together in harmony without any written rules. All disciples were highly realized if not fully enlightened, so there was no need for a code of conduct. After thirteen years and as the community expanded, situations arose which the Buddha and lay community felt were inappropriate for mendicants. The complete Vinaya Piñaka was recited by Upāli at the First Buddhist Council shortly after the parinirvana or death of the Buddha. Traditional accounts fix the origins during the lifetime of the Buddha, yet all existing manuscript traditions date from significantly later periods. Most surviving texts originate around the 5th century CE. While the early community seems to have lived primarily as wandering monks who begged for alms, many Vinaya rules assume settled monasticism to be the norm. Regular collective meals organized by lay donors or funded by monastic wealth became standard practice over time.
The core of the Vinaya is a set of rules known as the Pātimokkha in Pali and the Prātimokśa in Sanskrit. This collection represents the shortest portion of every Vinaya text and is universally regarded as the earliest component. Rules are listed in descending order, starting with four rules that entail expulsion followed by five further categories of more minor offences. The second major component is the Suttavibhañga, which provides commentary on each rule listed in the Prātimokśa. This typically includes the origin of the rule in a specific incident or dispute along with variations indicating related situations covered by the rule. Exceptions account for situations not to be regarded as violations of a more general rule. The third division is known as the Khandhaka meaning divisions or chapters. Each section addresses specific aspects of monastic life including procedures for ordination acquisition and storage of medical supplies and procurement and distribution of robes. The final segment called the Kśudrakavastu contains miscellanea that do not belong to other sections.
Over time Buddhist Vinaya lineages split into various traditions mirroring the development of Indian Buddhist schools. Three Vinaya traditions remain in use by modern ordained sanghas: the Theravada in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, Mulasarvastivada in Tibetan Buddhism and the Himalayan region, and Dharmaguptaka in East Asian Buddhism. Five other Vinaya schools of Indian Buddhism are preserved in Asian canonical manuscripts including those of the Kasyapīya Mahasamghika Mahisakasa Sammatiya and Sarvastivada. The Pali version of the Theravada school has 227 rules for bhikkhus and 311 for bhikkhunis. Since the nun's lineage died out in all areas of the Theravada school traditionally women's roles as renunciates were limited to taking eight or ten Precepts. Such women appear as maechis in Thai Buddhism dasasilamatas in Sri Lanka thilashin in Myanmar and siladharas at Amaravati Buddhist Monastery in England. More recently Theravadin women have been undergoing upasampada again although this remains a highly charged topic within Theravadin communities.
Among several Vinaya texts transmitted to China the Four-Part Vinaya of the Dharmaguptaka school gained predominant authority. Translated into Chinese in 405 CE by the Kashmīri monk Buddhayaśas this text outlined a disciplinary code of 250 rules for monks and 348 for nuns. The most influential lineage became known as the Southern Mountain School named after the Zhongnanshan region where its founder Daoxuan resided. His authoritative commentary compiled in 626 became the central text of the school providing detailed guidance on monastic procedures and ritual regulations. Despite the prominence of the Nanshan lineage two other major Vinaya traditions were active during the early Tang period: the Xiangbu zong led by Fali and the Dongta zong led by Huaisu. Yuanzhao a Northern Song Vinaya master from 1048 to 1116 is a pivotal figure who reinterpreted Daoxuan's commentaries inspiring monastic revival movements in medieval China and Japan. Master Hongyi recognized later generations as the 11th patriarch of the Nanshan Vinaya School revived teachings largely neglected for over 700 years.
Parallel and independent Prātimokśa rules exist for bhikkhus and bhikkhunis with the majority of rules being the same. The bhikkhuni Prātimokśa includes additional rules specific to women including the controversial Eight Garudhammas whose authorship is not attributed to the Buddha. In the Pali text a specific chapter of the Khandhaka deals with issues pertaining specifically to women renunciants while the Mulasarvastivada tradition devotes most of one volume to matters related to women. Tibetan Buddhists officially recommenced full ordination of bhikshuni nuns in Bhutan on the 23rd of June 2022 when 144 women were ordained. According to Nyingma school and Kagyu school scholars the full ordination lineage was transmitted in Tibet by Shantarakshita but did not survive later persecution undertaken by Udum Tsenpo. Afterwards Tibetan nuns became getsunma or novice nuns after taking lay vows of eight or ten Precepts. Some schools in Japan technically follow the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya but many monks there are married which can be considered a violation of the rules.
While traditional accounts fix the origins during the lifetime of the Buddha all existing manuscript traditions date from significantly later periods. Most surviving texts originate around the 5th century CE with earliest established dates for Theravada Vinaya stemming from composition of Buddhaghosa's commentaries in that same century. The Mulasarvastivada Vinaya was brought to the Tibetan Empire by Santarakshita who died in 788 when first monks were ordained there. Earlier Sanskrit manuscripts date to the 5th to 7th centuries while scholarly consensus places composition of the Mulasarvastivada Vinaya in early centuries of the first millennium. Six complete versions of Vinaya texts are extant including Pali Chinese and Tibetan editions with fragments of remaining versions surviving in various languages. The printing of Vinaya texts in Southern Song China involved multiple parties and patronage demonstrating national recognition and stabilization of the school. Records indicate the Vinaya school had institutional infrastructure attracting wide patronage from lay people and royal family members during this period.
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Common questions
When was the Vinaya Piñaka recited at the First Buddhist Council?
The complete Vinaya Piñaka was recited by Upāli at the First Buddhist Council shortly after the parinirvana or death of the Buddha. Traditional accounts fix the origins during the lifetime of the Buddha, yet all existing manuscript traditions date from significantly later periods.
What are the four main components of the Vinaya text structure?
The core of the Vinaya is a set of rules known as the Pātimokkha in Pali and the Prātimokśa in Sanskrit followed by the Suttavibhañga commentary section. The third division is known as the Khandhaka meaning divisions or chapters and the final segment called the Kśudrakavastu contains miscellanea that do not belong to other sections.
Which three Vinaya traditions remain in use by modern ordained sanghas today?
Three Vinaya traditions remain in use by modern ordained sanghas: the Theravada in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, Mulasarvastivada in Tibetan Buddhism and the Himalayan region, and Dharmaguptaka in East Asian Buddhism. Five other Vinaya schools of Indian Buddhism are preserved in Asian canonical manuscripts including those of the Kasyapīya Mahasamghika Mahisakasa Sammatiya and Sarvastivada.
When was the Four-Part Vinaya translated into Chinese by Buddhayaśas?
The Four-Part Vinaya of the Dharmaguptaka school gained predominant authority after being translated into Chinese in 405 CE by the Kashmīri monk Buddhayaśas. This text outlined a disciplinary code of 250 rules for monks and 348 for nuns within the Southern Mountain School named after the Zhongnanshan region where its founder Daoxuan resided.
On what date did Tibetan Buddhists officially recommence full ordination of bhikshuni nuns in Bhutan?
Tibetan Buddhists officially recommenced full ordination of bhikshuni nuns in Bhutan on the 23rd of June 2022 when 144 women were ordained. According to Nyingma school and Kagyu school scholars the full ordination lineage was transmitted in Tibet by Shantarakshita but did not survive later persecution undertaken by Udum Tsenpo.