The earliest stone inscription containing a recognizably Mahayana formulation and a mention of the Buddha Amitabha was found in the Indian subcontinent in Mathura, and dated to around 180 CE. This artifact, bearing the Brhmi inscription Made in the year 28 of the reign of King Huviska, for the Blessed One, the Buddha Amitabha, stands as a silent witness to a movement that was, for centuries, a virtual ghost in the archaeological record. For the first two centuries of the common era, Mahayana remained an extremely limited minority movement, attracting absolutely no documented public or popular support, and struggling for recognition and acceptance within the broader Buddhist landscape. It was not a monolithic sect with its own ordination lineage, but rather a scattered collection of groups based on different practices and sutras, often living side by side with non-Mahayana monks in the same monasteries. The movement did not begin as a rebellion against the established order, but rather as a new way of interpreting the existing teachings, emphasizing the bodhisattva path as a superior spiritual aspiration available to all who chose to take the vow. The term Mahayana, meaning Great Vehicle, was originally an honorary synonym for Bodhisattvayana, the vehicle of a bodhisattva seeking Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings, and its adoption did not initially represent a significant turning point in the development of a distinct tradition. Instead, it was a textual and philosophical evolution that would eventually transform the religious landscape of Asia.
The Silent Origins Debate
The origins of Mahayana are still not completely understood, and scholars have proposed numerous competing theories to explain how this vast movement arose from the ashes of early Buddhism. One early theory, the lay origins theory, suggested that laypersons were particularly important in the development of Mahayana, partly based on texts like the Vimalakirti Sutra which praise lay figures at the expense of monastics. However, this view is no longer widely accepted, as numerous early Mahayana works promote monasticism and asceticism, and much of the program of early Buddhism was intended to allow laymen and women the opportunity to make religious merit. Another prominent theory, the Mahasamghika origin theory, argues that Mahayana developed within the Mahasamghika tradition, possibly in the area along the Krishna River in the Andhra region of southern India. This theory is defended by scholars such as Hendrik Kern and Paul Williams, who point to the Mahasamghika doctrine of the supramundane nature of the Buddha as a precursor to Mahayana views. Yet, other scholars have pointed to different regions as being important, such as Gandhara and northwest India, and argue that the movement was not sectarian but possibly pan-Buddhist. A third theory, the forest hypothesis, states that Mahayana arose mainly among hard-core ascetics, members of the forest dwelling wing of the Buddhist Order, who were attempting to imitate the Buddha's forest living. This theory is based on certain sutras like the Ugrapariprccha Sutra which promote ascetic practice in the wilderness as a superior and elite path. However, recent scholarship by David Drewes challenges all of these major theories, arguing that there is no actual evidence for the existence of book shrines and that the practice of sutra veneration was pan-Buddhist and not distinctly Mahayana. Drewes suggests that Mahayana was primarily a textual movement, focused on the revelation, preaching, and dissemination of Mahayana sutras, that developed within, and never really departed from, traditional Buddhist social and institutional structures.
Indian Mahayana was an intellectually vibrant movement that developed various schools of thought during what Jan Westerhoff has called The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy, spanning from the beginning of the first millennium CE up to the 7th century. This era saw the rise of major philosophical schools such as Madhyamaka, founded by the second-century figure of Nagarjuna, and Yogacara, promoted by the Indian brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu. Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka, or Middle theory, focused on refuting all theories which posit any kind of substance, inherent existence or intrinsic nature, arguing that anything that has an independent existence cannot be dependently originated. The Madhyamaka philosophers were adamant that their denial of intrinsic nature was not a kind of nihilism, but rather a useful concept that should not be clung to. Meanwhile, the Yogacara school, also known as the doctrine of consciousness, claimed that all things are only mind, consciousness or perceptions, and that seemingly external objects do not really exist apart from the dependently originated flow of mental experiences. These schools engaged in fierce debates, with Yogacara philosophers developing their own interpretation of the doctrine of emptiness which criticized Madhyamaka, in effect claiming it fell into nihilism. The movement also saw the development of the Buddha-nature doctrine, which explains what allows sentient beings to become Buddhas, and the Prajnaparamita texts, which describe a deep knowledge of reality which Buddhas and bodhisattvas attain. These philosophical developments were not merely abstract exercises but were deeply practical, offering new ways to understand the nature of reality and the path to liberation. The movement was supported by massive monastic university complexes such as Nalanda, established by the 5th-century CE Gupta emperor, Kumaragupta I, and Vikramashila, established under Dharmapala between 783 and 820, which became centers of various branches of scholarship, including Mahayana philosophy.
The Bodhisattva's Vow
The central defining feature of a bodhisattva's path is the universal aspiration to end suffering for themselves and all other beings, a wish known as bodhicitta. This compassionate commitment to help others is the central characteristic of the Mahayana bodhisattva, and it is what distinguishes the Mahayana path from the paths of those who seek arhatship or solitary buddhahood for their own sake. The bodhisattva's spiritual path is traditionally held to begin with the revolutionary event called the arising of the Awakening Mind, which is the wish to become a Buddha in order to help all beings. This is achieved in different ways, such as the meditation taught by the Indian master Shantideva in his Bodhicaryavatara called equalising self and others and exchanging self and others. The idea of the bodhisattva is not unique to Mahayana Buddhism, but in Mahayana, the term bodhisattva is applicable to any person from the moment they intend to become a Buddha, without the requirement of a living Buddha being present. The bodhisattva path is said to take three or four incalculable eons, requiring a huge number of lifetimes of practice to complete, yet certain practices are sometimes held to provide shortcuts to Buddhahood. High level bodhisattvas, with eons of practice, are seen as extremely powerful supramundane beings, objects of devotion and prayer throughout the Mahayana world. Popular bodhisattvas which are revered across Mahayana include Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion, Manjushri, the bodhisattva of wisdom, Tara, and Maitreya, the future Buddha. The bodhisattva path involves the practice of a set of virtues called paramitas, or transcendent or supreme virtues, which include giving, ethical discipline, patient endurance, diligence, meditation and transcendent wisdom. The generation of bodhicitta may then be followed by the taking of the bodhisattva vows to lead to Nirvana the whole immeasurable world of beings, and these vows may be accompanied by certain ethical guidelines called bodhisattva precepts.
The Emptiness and Consciousness
Some of the key Mahayana teachings are found in the Prajnaparamita, or Transcendent Knowledge, texts, which are some of the earliest Mahayana works. Prajnaparamita is a deep knowledge of reality which Buddhas and bodhisattvas attain, a transcendent, non-conceptual and non-dual kind of knowledge into the true nature of things. This wisdom is also associated with insight into the emptiness, or sunyata, of dharmas, or phenomena, and their illusory nature, or maya. This amounts to the idea that all phenomena without exception have no essential unchanging core, and therefore have no fundamentally real existence. These empty phenomena are also said to be conceptual constructions, and because of this, all dharmas, even the Buddha's Teaching, the Buddha himself, Nirvana and all living beings, are like illusions or magic and dreams. The Heart Sutra famously states that all phenomena are empty, that is, without characteristic, unproduced, unceased, stainless, not stainless, undiminished, unfilled. The Prajnaparamita texts also use various metaphors to describe the nature of things, for example, the Diamond Sutra compares phenomena to a shooting star, a clouding of the sight, a lamp, an illusion, a drop of dew, a bubble, a dream, a lightning's flash, a thunder cloud. The doctrine of Vijnanavada, or the doctrine of consciousness, is another important doctrine promoted by some Mahayana sutras which later became the central theory of a major philosophical movement which arose during the Gupta period called Yogacara. The primary sutra associated with this school of thought is the Sandhinirmocana Sutra, which claims that sunyavada is not the final definitive teaching of the Buddha. Instead, the ultimate truth is said to be the view that all things are only mind, consciousness or perceptions, and that seemingly external objects do not really exist apart from the dependently originated flow of mental experiences. When this flow of mentality is seen as being empty of the subject-object duality we impose upon it, one reaches the non-dual cognition of Thusness, which is nirvana.
The Buddha's Many Bodies
Mahayana has a vastly expanded cosmology and theology, with various Buddhas and powerful bodhisattvas residing in different worlds and buddha-fields. Buddhas unique to Mahayana include the Buddhas Amitabha, meaning Infinite Light, Akshobhya, meaning the Imperturbable, Bhaişajyaguru, meaning Medicine guru, and Vairocana, meaning the Illuminator. In Mahayana, a Buddha is seen as a being that has achieved the highest kind of awakening due to his superior compassion and wish to help all beings. An important feature of Mahayana is the way that it understands the nature of a Buddha, which differs from non-Mahayana understandings. Mahayana texts not only often depict numerous Buddhas besides Sakyamuni, but see them as transcendental or supramundane beings with great powers and huge lifetimes. The White Lotus Sutra famously describes the lifespan of the Buddha as immeasurable and states that he actually achieved Buddhahood countless of eons ago and has been teaching the Dharma through his numerous avatars for an unimaginable period of time. Furthermore, Buddhas are active in the world, constantly devising ways to teach and help all sentient beings. According to Paul Williams, in Mahayana, a Buddha is often seen as a spiritual king, relating to and caring for the world, rather than simply a teacher who after his death has completely gone beyond the world and its cares. Mahayana Buddhologies have often been compared to various types of theism, though there is disagreement among scholars regarding this issue. The idea that Buddhas remain accessible is extremely influential in Mahayana and also allows for the possibility of having a reciprocal relationship with a Buddha through prayer, visions, devotion and revelations. Through the use of various practices, a Mahayana devotee can aspire to be reborn in a Buddha's pure land or buddha field, where they can strive towards Buddhahood in the best possible conditions. The influential Mahayana concept of the three bodies, or trikaya, of a Buddha developed to make sense of the transcendental nature of the Buddha. This doctrine holds that the bodies of magical transformation and the enjoyment bodies are emanations from the ultimate Buddha body, the Dharmakaya, which is none other than the ultimate reality itself, i.e. emptiness or Thusness.
The Spread Across Asia
Over time, Indian Mahayana texts and philosophy reached Central Asia and China through trade routes like the Silk Road, later spreading throughout East Asia. Central Asian Mahayana scholars were very important in the Silk Road Transmission of Buddhism, and they include translators like Lokakshema, Dharmaraksha, Kumarajiva, and Dharmakshema. The site of Dunhuang seems to have been a particularly important place for the study of Mahayana Buddhism. Mahayana spread from China to Korea, Vietnam, and Japan, the latter partly through Korea as well. Mahayana also spread from India to Myanmar, and then Sumatra and Malaysia. Mahayana spread from Sumatra to other Indonesian islands, including Java and Borneo, the Philippines, Cambodia, and eventually, Indonesian Mahayana traditions made it to China. By the fourth century, Chinese monks like Faxian and Xuanzang had begun to travel to India to bring back Buddhist teachings, especially Mahayana works. These figures also wrote about their experiences in India and their work remains invaluable for understanding Indian Buddhism. In some cases, Indian Mahayana traditions were directly transplanted, as with the case of the East Asian Madhymaka by Kumarajiva and East Asian Yogacara especially by Xuanzang. Later, new developments in Chinese Mahayana led to new Chinese Buddhist traditions like Tiantai, Huayen, Pure Land and Chan Buddhism, which would then spread to Korea, Vietnam and Japan. Forms of Mahayana Buddhism which are mainly based on the doctrines of Indian Mahayana sutras are still popular in East Asian Buddhism, which is mostly dominated by various branches of Mahayana Buddhism. Paul Williams has noted that in this tradition in the Far East, primacy has always been given to the study of the Mahayana sutras. As of 2010, the Mahayana tradition was the largest major tradition of Buddhism, with 53% of Buddhists belonging to East Asian Mahayana and 6% to Vajrayana, compared to 36% to Theravada.
The Tantric Turn
Beginning during the Gupta period, a new movement began to develop which drew on previous Mahayana doctrine as well as new Pan-Indian tantric ideas. This came to be known by various names such as Vajrayana, Mantrayana, and Esoteric Buddhism or Secret Mantra. This new movement continued into the Pala era, during which it grew to dominate Indian Buddhism. Possibly led by groups of wandering tantric yogis named mahasiddhas, this movement developed new tantric spiritual practices and also promoted new texts called the Buddhist Tantras. Tantric Buddhism generally deals with new forms of meditation and ritual which often makes use of the visualization of Buddhist deities, including Buddhas, bodhisattvas, dakinis, and fierce deities, and the use of mantras. Most of these practices are esoteric and require ritual initiation or introduction by a tantric master or guru. The source and early origins of Vajrayana remain a subject of debate among scholars, with some arguing that Vajrayana derives its tantric content from Shaivism and that it developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and Shaivism. However, other scholars question the idea that Indian tantrism developed in Shaivism first and that it was then adopted into Buddhism, arguing that both traditions developed side by side, drawing on each other as well as on local Indian tribal religion. Whatever the case, this new tantric form of Mahayana Buddhism became extremely influential in India, especially in Kashmir and in the lands of the Pala Empire. It eventually also spread north into Central Asia, the Tibetan plateau and to East Asia. Vajrayana remains the dominant form of Buddhism in Tibet, in surrounding regions like Bhutan and in Mongolia. Esoteric elements are also an important part of East Asian Buddhism where it is referred to by various terms, including Zhényán, Mìjiào, Mìzōng, or Tángmì in Chinese and Shingon, Tomitsu, Mikkyo, and Taimitsu in Japanese. The use of mandalas was one new feature of Tantric Buddhism, which also adopted new deities such as Chakrasamvara.