Jainism: the story on HearLore

Jainism

The name Jainism comes from the Sanskrit word ji, meaning to conquer, referring to the battle against the passions and bodily desires that bind the soul to the cycle of rebirth. Those who accomplish this conquest are called jina, or conquerors, and their followers are known as jain or jaina. This ancient Indian religion teaches a path toward spiritual purity and enlightenment through disciplined non-violence to all living creatures. The tradition is spiritually guided by twenty-four supreme teachers who have conquered the cycle of rebirth and attained omniscience. The core of Jain philosophy is established on three ethical pillars: non-violence, non-absolutism or many-sided reality, and non-possession. While its ultimate spiritual goal is liberation from the cycle of rebirth, these ethical principles have historically fostered a community renowned for its high literacy, trusted role in commerce, and distinct intellectual culture. Jain philosophy distinguishes itself through the doctrine of many-sided reality, which asserts that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects, meaning no single viewpoint can claim absolute truth. This framework encourages intellectual humility and conflict resolution, contrasting with the one-sided views rejected by the tradition. Ethically, the vow of non-attachment requires monks to renounce all property, while encouraging laypersons to limit their possessions and voluntarily limit their desires. Historically, the application of non-violence drove the Jain community away from agriculture and warfare toward trade and banking, where they became a dominant mercantile force in ancient and medieval India, supporting a vast network of temples, libraries, and charitable institutions. The tradition views itself as eternal, with the guiding every cosmic time cycle. In the current cycle, the first was Rishabhanatha, credited in tradition with establishing civilized society. The 23rd, Pārśvanātha, is dated by historians to the 9th to 8th century BCE, making him likely the earliest historical figure of the tradition. The 24th and final, Mahavira, was a contemporary of the Buddha and a central figure in the movement of Greater Magadha, which rejected the authority of the Vedas and established the current ascetic order. Jainism has between four and five million followers, known as Jains or Jainas, residing mostly in India, with significant diaspora communities in North America, Europe, and East Asia. The community is divided into two major sub-traditions, the sky-clad and white-clad, which differ on ascetic practices, gender, and canonical texts, though they share the same core philosophy. Despite their small numbers, Jains have exerted a disproportionate influence on Indian culture, contributing significantly to the development of logic, art, architecture, and the legal and ethical frameworks of modern India. Major festivals include Paryushana, Mahavir Janma Kalyanak, and Diwali, which is observed by Jains as the anniversary of Mahavira's attainment of moksha.

Common questions

What is the origin of the name Jainism and what does it mean?

Who are the twenty-four supreme teachers in Jainism and when did they live?

The tradition is spiritually guided by twenty-four supreme teachers who have conquered the cycle of rebirth and attained omniscience. The 23rd, Pārśvanātha, is dated by historians to the 9th to 8th century BCE, making him likely the earliest historical figure of the tradition. The 24th and final, Mahavira, was a contemporary of the Buddha and a central figure in the movement of Greater Magadha, which rejected the authority of the Vedas and established the current ascetic order.

What are the three ethical pillars of Jain philosophy?

The core of Jain philosophy is established on three ethical pillars: non-violence, non-absolutism or many-sided reality, and non-possession. These principles have historically fostered a community renowned for its high literacy, trusted role in commerce, and distinct intellectual culture.

When was the schism between the Digambara and Śvētāmbara traditions of Jainism?

The Digambara tradition places the origin of the schism around the 4th century BCE. The definitive, formal split is often associated with the Council of Vallabhi in the 5th century CE. This council was organized by the Svetambara tradition to formally codify their canonical scriptures.

How many followers does Jainism have and where do they live?

Jainism has between four and five million followers, known as Jains or Jainas, residing mostly in India, with significant diaspora communities in North America, Europe, and East Asia. According to the 2011 Census of India, there were 4.45 million Jains in the country, constituting 0.37% of the total population.

What is the Jain view on karma and how does it differ from other Indian religions?

Jainism is the only tradition that conceives of karma as a physical, material substance, subtle, invisible particles of matter that exist in the universe. These particles are drawn to the soul by its actions, thoughts, and words, and this karmic dirt then sticks to the soul, obscuring its innate, pure qualities of consciousness and bliss.

The Physics Of The Soul

Jain metaphysics explains the nature of the universe and its interaction with the soul, known as jiva. It posits that the soul is an eternal entity that is separate from the body and the physical world. Their interaction is what defines the cycle of rebirth, or Sañsāra. According to Jain beliefs, vibrational energy, or virya, draws karmic particles to the soul and creates bondages. Purification of soul from karmic particles and thereby liberation can be achieved through the three jewels, namely correct faith, correct knowledge, and correct conduct. Jainism, like other Indian religions, believes in karma, but with a unique and fundamental difference. It is the only tradition that conceives of karma as a physical, material substance, subtle, invisible particles of matter that exist in the universe. These particles are drawn to the soul by its actions, thoughts, and words. This karmic dirt then sticks to the soul, obscuring its innate, pure qualities of consciousness and bliss. The bondage of karma is the cause of the soul's entrapment in Sañsāra and its repeated cycles of birth and death. The tattvas are the seven fundamental truths that form the basis of the entire Jain path. They describe the step-by-step process of karmic bondage and liberation, including the living soul, non-living substances, the influx of karmic particles, the bondage of these particles, the stoppage of new karmic inflow, the shedding or purification of existing bound karma, and the complete liberation of the soul. Jain philosophy also uniquely posits the existence of abhavya souls, a category of souls that are eternally trapped in Sañsāra and can never attain liberation. Jain cosmology views the universe as an uncreated, eternal, and self-sustaining entity. It was never created by a god and will never be destroyed. This universe is composed of six eternal substances known as dravya, including the living soul, non-sentient matter, the principle of motion, the principle of rest, space, and time. Time is itself conceived as a boundless, eternal wheel that rotates ceaselessly. It is divided into two half-cycles, an ascending arc of progressive happiness and virtue, and a descending arc of progressive sorrow and decline. The universe itself is structurally divided into three realms, the upper world of heavenly beings, the middle world of humans, animals, and plants, and the lower world of hellish beings. All unliberated souls, including gods and demons, transmigrate through these three realms based on their karma.

The Doctrine Of Many Sidedness

The second main principle of Jainism is anekāntavāda, from anekānta meaning many-sidedness, etymologically non-oneness or not being one, and vada meaning doctrine. The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects. It further states that reality can be experienced, but cannot be fully expressed with language. It suggests that human attempts to communicate are partial expressions of the truth. According to it, one can experience the taste of truth, but cannot fully express that taste through language. It holds that attempts to express experience are valid in some respect, but remain perhaps just one perspective, incomplete. It concludes that in the same way, spiritual truths can be experienced but not fully expressed. It suggests that the great error is belief in one-sidedness, where some relative truth is treated as absolute. The doctrine is ancient, found in Buddhist texts such as the Samaññaphala Sutta. The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a qualified yes. These texts identify anekāntavāda as a key difference from the Buddha's teachings. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer it is or it is not to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both it is, and it is not, qualified with perhaps, to understand Absolute Reality. The permanent being is conceptualized as jiva and ajiva within a dualistic anekāntavāda framework. According to Paul Dundas, in contemporary times the anekāntavāda doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to promote a universal religious tolerance, and a teaching of plurality and benign attitude to other ethical, religious positions. Dundas states this is a misreading of historical texts and Mahāvīra's teachings. According to him, the many pointedness, multiple perspective teachings of the Mahāvīra is about the nature of absolute reality and human existence. He claims that it is not about condoning activities such as killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as perhaps right. The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there is no perhaps about them. Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa.

The History Of The Conquerors

Jainism is a religion founded in ancient India. Jains trace their history through twenty-four tirthankaras and revere Rishabhanatha as the first tirthankara in the present time-cycle. Some artifacts found in the Indus River Valley civilization have been suggested as a link to ancient Jain culture, but very little is known about the Indus Valley iconography and script. The last two tirthankaras, the 23rd tirthankara Parshvanatha and the 24th tirthankara Mahavira, are historical figures. Mahavira was a contemporary of the Buddha. According to Jain texts, the 22nd Tirthankara Neminatha lived about 85,000 years ago and was the cousin of Krishna. Jainism is an ancient Indian religion of obscure origins. Jains claim it to be eternal, and consider the first tirthankara Rishabhanatha as the reinforcer of Jain Dharma in the current time cycle. It is one of the Śramaņa traditions of ancient India, those that rejected the Vedas, and according to the twentieth-century scholar of comparative religion Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Jainism was in existence before the Vedas were composed. The first twenty two tirthankaras are not considered by non-Jain scholars as historical figures. The 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanatha, was likely a historical being, dated by the Jain tradition to the ninth century BCE; historians date him to the eighth or seventh century BCE. Parshvanatha may have founded a proto-Jain ascetic community which subsequently got revived and reformed by Mahavira. Mahāvīra is considered a contemporary of the Buddha, in around the sixth or 5th century BCE. The interaction between the two religions began with the Buddha; later, they competed for followers and the merchant trade networks that sustained them. Buddhist and Jain texts sometimes have the same or similar titles but present different doctrines. Kings Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, and Udayin of the Haryanka dynasty were patrons of Jainism. Jain tradition states that Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan Empire and grandfather of Ashoka, became a monk and disciple of Jain ascetic Bhadrabahu in the later part of his life. Jain texts state that he died intentionally at Shravanabelagola by fasting. The historicity of Jainism is supported by epigraphic and archaeological evidence. The Hathigumpha Inscription at the Udayagiri Caves in Odisha, dated to the 2nd century BCE, is a key piece of early evidence. This inscription, from King Kharavela of Kalinga, details his patronage of Jain monks. It also provides a historical reference by mentioning the retrieval of a Jina idol taken from Kalinga by a Nanda dynasty king. Additionally, excavations at Kankali Tila in Mathura have provided extensive archaeological evidence of an early Jain center. The site yielded numerous Jain stupas, statues, and ayagapatas dating from the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE. These tablets, commissioned by lay followers, represent early physical evidence of an organized community that included monks, nuns, and laity. The third century BCE emperor Ashoka, in his pillar edicts, mentions the Niganthas. Tirthankara statues date back to the second century BCE. Archeological evidence suggests that Mathura was an important Jain center from the second century BCE onwards. Inscriptions from as early as the first century CE already show the schism between Digambara and Śvētāmbara. There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of Jain monks in south India by the second or first centuries BCE, and archaeological evidence of Jain monks in Saurashtra in Gujarat by the second century CE.

The Great Schism And Sects

The Jain community is divided into two major denominations, Digambara and Śvētāmbara. This schism is ancient and centers on differing monastic disciplines, canonical scriptures, and core doctrines such as the liberation of women. The Digambara sky-clad tradition holds that male monks must renounce all possessions, including clothes, to practice achailakya, nudity. Female monastics, known as Aryikas, wear unstitched plain white sarees. The Śvētāmbara white-clad tradition holds that monastics, both male and female, may wear simple, seamless white robes. The Digambara tradition places the origin of the schism around the 4th century BCE. According to their account, Acharya Bhadrabahu predicted a twelve-year famine in Magadha and led a migration of monks to Karnataka. Sthulabhadra, a pupil, remained behind with other monks. The Digambara tradition holds that Sthulabhadra's northern group relaxed the original practice of nudity and began wearing white clothes, which was unacceptable to the returning monks who had preserved the mūla sangha. In this view, the Digambaras preserved the original achailakya practice of Mahavira, while the Svetambaras adopted a more lax, clothed practice. The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Prakrit Suttapahuda of Kundakunda. The Svetambara tradition, in texts like the Viśeşāvaśyaka Bhāşya, places the schism much later. Their account states the Digambara sect arose 609 years after Mahavira's nirvana, founded by a monk named Sivabhuti. The narrative states that Sivabhuti, in a fit of pique, adopted nudity, which his original tradition rejected. Svetambara texts accuse this new sect of eight concealments, including the rejection of the canonical texts preserved by their tradition and the new doctrine that women could not attain liberation. The Śvētāmbara tradition in turn has two sub-traditions, Deravasi, also known as Mandirmargis, and Sthānakavasī. Most modern scholars, such as Padmanabh Jaini and Paul Dundas, conclude that the schism was not a single event but a gradual hardening of differences over several centuries. Monastic nudity and the wearing of robes likely co-existed as acceptable monastic options for some time. Archaeological evidence from Mathura, for instance, shows nude tirthankara images from the Kushan Empire. The definitive, formal split is often associated with the Council of Vallabhi in the 5th century CE. This council was organized by the Svetambara tradition to formally codify their canonical scriptures. The Digambara tradition, which had its own and different scriptural canon, did not attend and rejected the authenticity of these texts, solidifying the schism. Key Doctrinal and Practical Differences include their practices and dress code, interpretations of teachings, and on Jain history especially concerning the tirthankaras. Their monasticism rules differ, as does their iconography. Śvētāmbara has had more female than male mendicants, where Digambara has mostly had male monks and considers males closest to the soul's liberation. The Śvētāmbaras believe that women can also achieve liberation through asceticism and state that the 19th Tirthankara Māllīnātha was female, which Digambara rejects. Early Jain images from Mathura depict Digambara iconography until late fifth century CE where Svetambara iconography starts appearing. Several scholars and scriptures of other religions as well as those of their counterpart Śvetāmbara Jains criticize Digambara sect's practices of public nudity as well as their belief that women are incapable of attaining spiritual liberation. Excavations at Mathura revealed Jain statues from the time of the Kushan Empire. Tirthankara represented without clothes, and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm, are identified as the Ardhaphalaka mentioned in texts. The Yapaniyas, believed to have originated from the Ardhaphalaka, followed Digambara nudity along with several Śvētāmbara beliefs. In the modern era, according to Flügel, new Jain religious movements that are a primarily devotional form of Jainism have developed which resemble Jain Mahayana style devotionalism.

The Medieval Patronage And Decline

Royal patronage has been a key factor in the growth and decline of Jainism. In the second half of the first century CE, Hindu kings of the Rashtrakuta dynasty sponsored major Jain cave temples. King Harshavardhana of the seventh century championed Jainism, Buddhism and all traditions of Hinduism. The Pallava King Mahendravarman I converted from Jainism to Shaivism. His work Mattavilasa Prahasana ridicules certain Shaiva sects and the Buddhists and expresses contempt for Jain ascetics. The Yadava dynasty built many temples at the Ellora Caves between 700 and 1000 CE. King Ama of the eighth century converted to Jainism, and the Jain pilgrimage tradition was well established in his era. Mularaja, the founder of the Chalukya dynasty, constructed a Jain temple, even though he was not a Jain. During the 11th century, Basava, a minister to the Jain Kalachuri king Bijjala, converted many Jains to the Lingayat Shaivite sect. The Lingayats destroyed Jain temples and adapted them to their use. The Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana became a Vaishnavite under the influence of Ramanuja, and Vaishnavism then grew rapidly in what is now Karnataka. Jainism faced persecution during and after the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. The scholarship in context of Jain relations with the ruler of Delhi Sultanate remains scarce, notwithstanding there were several instances of cordial relations of Jains with prominent rulers of the Sultanate. Alauddin Khalji, as attested by the Jain texts held discussions with Jain sages and once specially summoned Acharya Mahasena to Delhi. One more prominent Jain figure Acharya Ramachandra Suri was also honored by him. During his reign, his governor of Gujarat, Alp Khan permitted the reconstruction of the temples razed during earlier Muslim conquests and himself made huge donation for the renovation of Jain temples. Muhammad bin Tughluq according to the Jain chronicles favoured the Jain scholars. The Mughal emperors in general were influenced by the Jain scholars and made patronage and grants for their pilgrimage sites under Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir and even Aurangzeb. Despite this, there were instances of religious bigotry during the Mughal rule towards Jains. Babur, the first Mughal emperor ordered the destruction of various Jain idols in Gwalior. In 1567, Akbar ravaged the fort of Chittor. After the conquest of the fort, Akbar ordered the destruction of several Jain shrines and temples in Chittor. Similarly there were instances of desecration of Jain religious shrines under Jahangir, Shah Jahan and most notably under Aurangzeb. The Jain community were the traditional bankers and financiers, and this significantly impacted the Muslim rulers. However, they rarely were a part of the political power during the Islamic rule period of the Indian subcontinent. Colonial era reports and Christian missions variously viewed Jainism as a sect of Hinduism, a sect of Buddhism, or a distinct religion. Christian missionaries were frustrated at Jain people without pagan creator gods refusing to convert to Christianity, while colonial era Jain scholars such as Champat Rai Jain defended Jainism against criticism and misrepresentation by Christian activists. Missionaries of Christianity and Islam considered Jain traditions idolatrous and superstitious. These criticisms, states John E. Cort, were flawed and ignored similar practices within sects of Christianity. The British colonial government in India and Indian princely states promoted religious tolerance. However, laws were passed that made roaming naked by anyone an arrestable crime. This drew popular support from the majority Hindu population, but particularly impacted Digambara monks. The Akhil Bharatiya Jain Samaj opposed this law, claiming that it interfered with Jain religious rights. Acharya Shantisagar entered Bombay in 1927, but was forced to cover his body. He then led an India-wide tour as the naked monk with his followers, to various Digambara sacred sites, and was welcomed by kings of the Maharashtra provinces. Shantisagar fasted to oppose the restrictions imposed on Digambara monks by the British Raj and prompted their discontinuance. The laws were abolished by India after independence.

The Modern Faith And Ecology

The texts attributed to Kundakunda inspired two contemporary lay-movements within Jainism with his notion of two truths and his emphasis on direct insight into niścayanaya or ultimate perspective, also called supreme and pure. Shrimad Rajchandra was a Jain poet and mystic who was inspired by works of Kundakunda and Digambara mystical tradition. Nominally belonging to the Digambara tradition, his followers sometimes consider his teaching as a new path of Jainism, neither Śvetāmbara nor Digambara, and revere him as a saint. His path is sometimes referred as Raj Bhakta Marg, Kavipanth, or Shrimadiya, which has mostly lay followers as was Rajchandra himself. His teachings influenced Kanji Swami, Dada Bhagwan, Rakesh Jhaveri, Saubhagbhai, Lalluji Maharaj, Atmanandji and several other religious figures. Kanji Panth is a lay movement founded by Kanji Swami. Nominally it belongs to the Śvetāmbara but is inspired by Kundakunda and Shrimad Rajchandra, though lacking a place in any Digambara ascetic lineage descending from Kundakunda. Kanji Swami has many followers in the Jain diaspora. They generally regard themselves simply as Digambara Jains, more popularly known as Mumukshu, following the mystical tradition of Kundakunda and Pandit Todarmal. Bauer notes that in recent years there has been a convergence of the Kanji Swami Panth and the Shrimad Rajcandra movement, part of trend toward a more eucumenical and less sectarian Jainism among educated, mobile Jains living overseas. The Akram Vignan Movement established by Dada Bhagwan draws inspiration from teachings of Rajchandra and other Jain scriptures, though it is considered as a Jain-Vaishnava Hindu syncretistic movement. Greatly influenced by Shrimad Rajchandra, the leader of the campaign for Indian independence, Mahatma Gandhi stated regarding Jainism. Chandanaji became the first Jain woman to receive the title of Acharya in 1987. With an estimated four to five million followers worldwide, the vast majority of Jains reside in India. According to the 2011 Census of India, there were 4.45 million Jains in the country, constituting 0.37% of the total population. The community is highly concentrated, with 78.2% of Indian Jains living in four states: Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. Other states with significant populations include Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and Tamil Nadu. In 2014, the Government of India granted Jainism national minority status. Significant Jain communities exist globally, largely tracing their origins to Indian migration. The oldest of these is in East Africa, particularly Kenya and Uganda, where Jain merchants settled in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Political instability in those countries in the 1960s and 1970s led to a secondary migration, primarily to the United Kingdom, which now has a community estimated at 25,000 to 30,000. The first Jain temple consecrated outside India was built in London. Jainism, one of the world's oldest religions, offers a profound ecological philosophy rooted in its core principles. As noted in the Jain Declaration on Nature, Jainism is fundamentally a religion of ecology and has turned ecology into a religion. It has enabled Jains to create an environment-friendly value system and code of conduct. Central to Jain ethics is ahimsa, which extends beyond human interactions to encompass all living beings. All breathing, existing, living, sentient beings should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away. This is the pure, unchangeable, eternal law. The Jain concept of parasparopagrahojīvānām in the Tattvarth Sutra, the most authoritative sacred text of Jains, teaches that all souls are responsible for one another and underscores the mutual interdependence of all life forms. This principle is not merely philosophical but is reflected in daily practices. For instance, Jain monks and nuns often wear masks to prevent inhaling and harming microscopic organisms, demonstrating meticulous care for even the smallest forms of life. Jainism also emphasizes aparigraha, advocating for minimal consumption and a lifestyle that avoids excess. This principle encourages individuals to live sustainably, reducing their ecological footprint. Using any resource beyond one's needs and misuse of any part of nature is considered a form of theft. Indeed, the Jain faith goes one radical step further and declares unequivocally that waste and creating pollution are acts of violence. In contemporary times, Jain communities continue to uphold these ecological principles through various initiatives. These include tree planting, wildlife conservation, and promoting vegetarianism, all aimed at fostering a harmonious relationship with nature. Such practices exemplify the enduring relevance of Jain teachings in addressing modern environmental challenges.